SD 

.t-5 



nmi POLICIES AND mm mummi 



i>f 



GEEMAI^Y AND BETTTSII INDIA. 



mUKCTOlt NKW iORK STATE VOLLKGE OF FOKE.STltX, VOKNELL UXIYEKl-llTT. 



Ropiiiilc.l fnmi H. Doc. No. 181, 55111 ('(II1^■., :{»1 Scss, 



WASHINGTON: 

GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE. 

1899. 




Book 'F5 



^ ' » 



/ 



FOHiST P(iijii^:h m m 



GEEMANY AND JJIMTISU INDIA. 



T,y P.. E. VET?T^O'\\^. T,T.. r>.. 

iiumcToH M:n' loim state vvllfme of fukestii\, vuknell i.\n la/.snT. 



l!('liriii(c(l I'roiii H. Doc. No. IM. o'ltli (on;;.. :!il Scss 



WASHINGTON: 

GOVERNMENT PRINTINCi oPFICE. 
181)!). 






,AY 17 l%6 



1). FOKI-ST 1'()L1C11^:S OF RUROIMLVX NATIONS. 



The coiKlitions wliicli ii huudred years a^o iiiliueuced the policies of the European nations— 
namely, the necessity of lookin};- ont for continuance of doniestie supplies— are at present well 
overcome, provided the supi)lies in other countries last and can readdy be secured. 

In re^'ard to supplies, the European countries may be j^rouped into those whicli produce as 
yet more than they need, namely: liussia, Austria-Hungary, Servia, Sweden and Norway, wliicdi 
are, therefore, exporters; those which produce large ([uantities of forest ])roducts, but .not 
sufticieut for their needs, Germany, France, Switzerland; those which depend largely or almost 
entirely on importation, I':ngland, Belgium, Holland, Denmark, Spain, rortugal, Italy, (ireece, 
and Turkey. 

Nevertheless, at least in Cermany, the desiraliility of fostering home production and advan- 
tages of a general economic character, especially eniidoyment of labor in winter time which tlie 
forest industries insure, have still an influence upon the policy of the (iovernment, even with 
supply forests. 

In this way may be explained the protective tariff against wood imports, which was enacted 
in 1885 and increased later, especially to keep out competition fnnu the virgin woods of Austria- 
Hungary and Kussia. The last revision of ISitL' has for its object not tiie discouragement of 
importation, but the inducing of importation of only raw material to be manufactured at home, by 
imposing a duty five times as high on lumber as on logs. 

Tiie result, however, has been more satisfactory from the revenue point of view than in 
protecting the forest owners, the AustroHungarian railroads e(iuali/.ing the duty charges by 
lower rates. 

The e.xistence of a State forest policy, such as most European States has e adopted, is based 
at present mainly on the protective value of tlie forest cover and the re(;ognition that pri\ ate 
interest can not be expected, or is insulHcent, to give proper regard to this feature in its treatment 

of the forest areas. 

It can not be said that a tinally .settled policy exists in any of the States, not even in Cerniany, 
but only that it is in a, highly advanced stage of forin:ition, with the tendency of increasing 
governmental activity and interference. 

Such a policy is expres.sed in various ways, State ownership, State supervision of comnuinal 
and private forests, restriction of cle;iring and enforced reforesting, establishment of forestry 
schools, and experiment stations. 

State ownership of forest areas, which in the. beginning of the century began to decrea.se 
under the inlluence and misapi>lication of Aihim Snnth's teaching, and the doctrine «i' in<lividual 
rights urged to its extreme con.se(|uenees, is now on the increase lu most States. Thus France, 
which duringand after tiie Revolution, took the lead in this disnieinberment of the forest jiroperty 
which the monarchy had maintained, sold during the years 1791 to ITil.") nearly one-half of the 
State forests and continued to reduce the area until there remained in 1ST I but one-liftli of the 
(n'iginal holdings. Since then a reversal of the i.olicy has been in practice, the area not only 
being inca-eased but iinancial assistance iu reforesting on a large scale being given to private 
owners and communities. 

Thus in the budget for IS!).") of .■i!2,r>()0,00(l appropriated for the State forest department, 
)jil,0()0,(IOO is set a.side for the extension of the. Stale forests and necessary improvenu'iit of the 
existing ones. The State owns about 2,C0(»,(I0U acres— somewhat over Id ner cent of the total 



■JOi; FORESTRY INVESTIGATIONS V. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULIURE. 

uit'ii. Ill addition the private ])ioi)erty is controlled entirely as regards clearing-; that is to 
say, 110 clearing may be done witliont notice to tlie Government authorities, or, in the mountain 
districts, without sanction ot the same. 

Tiiis control is especially stringent with rel'erence to the holdings of village and city corpora- 
tions, which re|>resent over 27 per cent of the forest area. These must submit their plans of 
management to the State Ibrc.st department for approval, and are debarred from dividing their 
l)roi)erty, tlins msurnig continuity of ownershi]) and conservative management. 

The necessity for such control became api)arent in the lirst quarter of the century, when as a 
conseiinencc of reckless denudation in the Alps, (Jivennes, and Pyrenees, whole communities 
became imiioverished by the torrents which destroyed and silted over the fertile lands at the foot 
of the mountains. Some 8,()(t(),0()(t acres of mountain forest in twenty dei)artments were involved 
in tliese disastrous consequences of forest destruction, with 1, 00(1, 000 a(^res of once fertile soil made 
u.seless. The work of recovery was begun under laws of 18(i0 and 1S(!4, and a revised law, the 
reboisemeut act, of ISSL*. Under this law the State buys and recuperates the'laud, or else forces 
communities or i)rivate owners to do so with financial aid from the (loveniment. 

Since the operation of this law the State has spent in purchases of worn out lauds and in works 
to check the torrents and in reforesting, nearly $12,000,000, not including subventions to commu- 
nities and private owners. It is estimated that $28,000,000 more will have to be expended before 
the area whicii the State does or is to jiossess, some 800,000 acres in all, will be restored. 

A forestry school at Nancy educates the otlicers, and is among the best on the Continent. 

England, in (lie iiome country, has had little need of a ibrest iiolicy on account of its insular 
|)osition and topography. Of the .'!,000,000 acres of wtxidlands, mostly devoted to purposes of the 
chase or parks, 2 per cent are State forests, and .so encumbered with rights of adjoining cominouers 
as pasture or for wood supplies that no rational management is possible. -Hut in India there is 
a well organized forest administration with a very extensive area, namely, 00,000 square miles 
reserved and 34,590 square miles i)rotected and under active control of the (lovernment. The 
organization of the forestry service was begun in ISG.^ by (ierman foresters. (Sec pages 250-20.'!.) 
At present special schools of forestry, one in i-aigland and one in India, supply the technical 
education of the oOicers. 

Italy has long sulfered from the etfccts of I'orest devastation by droughts and Hoods, but the 
(ioNcrnment was always too weak to secure ettective remedies. The State owns only l.(> per cent 
of 111), 000 acres of forest, the balance of 7,00(1,000 acres belonging to communities and corporations 
or individuals. Vet by the laws of 1877, reviseil in 1888, the i)oliey of State interference is clearly 
delined. Excellent though the law appears on i)aper, it has probably not yielded any signiticant 
results or even general enforcement, owing to the linancial disability of tin; (iovei'iinient. This 
law jilaced nearly half the area not owned by the State under (lovernment control, namely, all 
woods and lands cleared of wood on the summits and slopes of tlie mountains above the upi)er 
limit of chestnut growth, and those that from their character and situation may, in consecpience 
of being cleared or tilled, give rise to land.slips, caving, or gullying, avalanches and snowslides, 
and may to the [uiblic injury interfere with water courses or change the character of tlui soil or 
injure local hygienic conditions. Government aid is to be extended where reforestation appeared 
necessary. 

Of the 70,000 acres which required immediate reforestation, for reasons of jmblic safety, only 
22,000 were reforested in twenty years up to 1880, the (joverument contributing $85,000 toward 
the cost. 

In the revised law of 1888, as a result of the vast experiences preceding, a further elabora- 
tion of the same i)lan was attem[)ted by creating further authority to enforce action. It is now 
estimated that 5;!t,000 acres need reforesting at a cost of $12,000,000, of which two-tifths is to be 
contributed by the State. 

I'jxpropriation proceedings may be instituted where owners refuse to reforest, with permission 
to reclaim in live years by paying the cost of work, with intei-est, incurred by the State. 

In Austria, the disastrous consequences which the reckless devastation "and abuse of her 
mountain forests by their owners has brought upon whole communities have led to a more stringent 
and general supervision of private and communal forests than anywhere else. Since 1883 there 



lUUOrEAN FOUKST POLICIES. 2()7 

lias lii'cii also ill ]irog'i'ess a work of i(H'ii|(eiatioii similar to i\w I'rcncli rchoistMiicnt work, in wliicli, 
up to 18".I4, nearly 81,500,0(10 had bcfii spent, tlie yiate contiihutinij; variously t'roiii 25 lo 100 jier 
cent toward covering the expeuse. A tiilly organized forest departineut luanagiss tlu^ (loverniiient 
forests, 2,000,000 acres, which are gradually being increased l)y purchase, or T.'I per cent of the 
wiiole forest area. One higher, and several lower schools piovide instruction. 

Some 1.5(1,000 a(;res of waste laud wore reforested by the State between IMSl and 18!)(). 

Even Russia, although one of tli(^ export countries, with jJ.'IO, 000,000 to s.ir.^ooo.ooo, and 
largely in the pioneering stage, has a well devised forest iioli<',y, developed within the last thirty 
or lifty years, which consists not only in maintaining (lovernnient forests to the extent of about 
2.S0,000,000 acres under tolerably good management, and ,'50,000,000 of Crown forests, personal 
property of the royal family, but in restricting private owners from abuse of their i)ro]>erty, where 
the puiilic well'are demands, while in tlie prairie country in southern Itussia large amounts of 
money are siieut by the ( lo\einmi'iit in planting forests and assisting ])riva(c enleipiise in the 
same direction. 

With the Siberian forests and ^,hosc of t\u- Caucasus addend, the area, of (lovernment forest 
may reach the large ligure of ()00,000,()00 acres, which, though not yet all placed under manage 
meiit, is sooner or lati'r to come under the existing forest admiiiistiation. 

The restrictive policy dates from a. very elaborate law passed in IScSS, in which the dciiKKaalic 
spirit in the constitution of the body controlling the exercise ol' profjcrty lights is interesting. 
1'iie apjiroval of working iilans or of clearings on private property is placed in lln^ hands of a 
specially constituted conimittee foi- each county, which includes the governor. Justices of the 
l>eacc, tlu^ county council, ami sc\(nal forest owners, and the (loverninenL itself must secure the 
ajiiu'oval of this committee for its operations. 

r>y this law, throughout I'.uropean llnssia, woodlands may be declared " ineserved forests" on 
the following grounds: That they serve as iirexentives against the formation t)f barrens and 
shifting sands, and the encroachment of dunes along seashores or the banks of na\ igabh; rivers, 
canals, and artilicial reservoirs; that they protect from sand drifts towns, villages, cultivated 
land, roads, and the like: that they ])rofect the banks of navigable rivers and (%inals from land- 
slides, overllows, or injuries by the breaking ui> oi- passing of ice; when growing (Ui hills, steep 
places, or declines, they serve to cliecic laud ov rock slides, avalanches, and sudden freshets, 
and all forests that protect the springs and sources of the rivers and their tributaries. 

In these preserved forests, wiuking |ilans arc made at the expense of the Government, and 
in the unpreserved forests at the expense of the owners. In each province the (ioveriiuient 
maintains an iiispei;tor inslnu'tor, whose duty is to advise those who apply to him in forest 
matters, and as far as possible he is to siii)erinteiid on the spot all forestry work. The ( io\ ('rnment 
has established nius(!ri(^s from which Diivate owners can obtain young trees and seeds at a low 
price. The owners are allowed to employ as managers of their forests tin; trained oflicials of the 
I'orest administration, while medals and prizes are given yearly to jirivate owners for excellency 
ill forest culture and management. Two higher and thirteen lower schools of forestry are also 
maintained by the (iovernineut. 

The country which has attracted most interest in all matters i)ertaiiiing to forestry, because 
the science of forestry is there most developed and most closely applied, is (Ic^rmany. Tlu^ [lolicies 
lirevailing and methods em[)loyed are fully described in another part ot this report. 

Tt may, however, be interesting to trace somewhat the hist(nical d-'vclopmeiit both of the 
apiilieatioii of forestry princijiles and of the existing forest policy. 

AUIioiigh as early as (Jliarlemagne's time a con(u'])tion of the value of a Ibrest as a piec-e of 
property was well recognized by that monarch himself, and crude prescriptions as to the jiroper 
use of the same are extant, a general rc'ally well ordered system of forest managenient hardly 
existed until the beginning of the eighteenth century. Spora<iically, to be sure, systi'inatiiM^are 
and regular iiielUods of rei)roductioii were employed even in the thirteenth and fourteenth centu- 



ries 



To understand the development of the presiMit forest policy in Ciermany one must study the 
peculiar conditions and development of ]iropertv rights that led to it. Cicrmany was originally 
settled by warriors, who had to keep together in order to resist enemies and compierors on every 



20S FORESTRY INVESTIGATIONS U. S. DEPARTilENT OF AGKK'ULTUKE. 

side, ready to move and cliauge domicile at auy momeut. Tlie soil which was conquered, conse- 
quently, was not divided, but owned as a whole, managed by and ibr the whole tribe. It is only 
in the sixth century that signs of private property in woodlands are discernible. Before that 
time it was ns nnlliiis, or, as it is expressed in legal manuscripts, ^^ ([uia non res ponstssd scd de 
ligno (Kjitny.''^ 

Wood being plentiful and yet needed by everybody, it appeared a crime only to take wood 
which had been already appropriated or bore unmistakable signs of ownership, such as being 
cut or shaped. But severe punishments were in earliest times iiitlicted for incendiarism and 
for damage to mast trees, since the seed mast for the lattening of swine was one of the most 
important uses of the forest. 

Tliere was not much need of partition, especially of the forests. The community, to which all 
the land of a district belonged, and which was managed liy and for the aggregate of society, was 
called the "mark," a communistic institution of most express character, and every "marker" or 
shareholder was allowed to get the timber needed by him for his own use without control. 

This early communal ownership of forest land undoubtedly explains the fact that even today 
over 5 per cent of the forest is owned by communities, cities, or villages. Gradually the necessity 
of regulating the cutting of the wood became apparent, as the best timber in the neighborhood 
of the villages was removed, aTul we find (|uite early mention of officials whose duty it was to 
superintend the felling, removing, and even the use of the timber. By and by even the firewood 
was designated by officials. Manufacturers received their material free of charge, but only as 
much as was needed to supply the community. Occasionally there were rules that each man had 
to plant trees in i)rop(U-tion to his consumption. So that by the end of the fourteenth century 
-(]uite a system of forest management had been developed. 

Meanwhile the Roman doctrine of the regal right to the chase had also begun to assert itself 
by the declaration of certain districts as ban forests or simply forests, in which the King exclu- 
sively reserved the rigiit to chase. The Kings again invested their trusted followers and nobles 
■with this right to the chase in various districts, thus gradually dividing the control of the same. 

While at first these reservations did not bring with them restrictions in the use of the timber 
or pasture or other i)roducts of the forest, gradually these uses were construed as exercised only 
by permission, and the former owners were reduced to holders of " servitudes," i. e., holders of 
certain rights in the substance of the forests. The fact fiiat the feudal lords frequently became 
the obermarkers or burgomasters of the mark community lent color of right to these restrictions 
in the use of the ])n)i)erty, besides the assertion that the needs of maintaining the chase required 
and entitled them to sucli control. 

It is interesting to note that througli all the changes of centuries, these so called servitudes 
have lasted until our own times, nmeh changed, to be sure, in character, and extending by new 
grants especially to churches, charitable institutions, cities, villages, and colonists. Such rights, 
to satisfy certain recpurements from the substance of an adjoining forest, were then usually 
attached to the ownership of certain farms, and involved counter service of some sort, usually in 
hauling wood or doing other forestry work. 

Sometimes when the lordly owners of large properties exercised only certain prerogatives to 
show ownership, these, in the course of time, lapsed into the character of servitudes, the forest 
itself by occupation becoming tiie property of the community. With changes in value and other 
changes in economic conditions, these rights often became disadvantageous and more and more 
cumbersome to either or both sides. 

The present century has been occupied with the difficult labor of relieving this state of things 
and making equitable arrangements by which the forests become unencumbered and the bene- 
flciaries i)roperly satisfied by cession of land or a money equivalent. 

This chapter of the history of forest policy is especially interesting to us as a teiuleucy, nay 
the practice exists of granting such rights to the public timber to the settlers in the Western 
States, which by and by will be Just as diilicult to eradicate when rational forest management is 
to be inaugurated. 

'^ Over 5,(100, (HK) marks and several hundred acres of land were recjuired in the little Kingdom 
of Saxony to get rid of the servitudes Iti the State forests. The Prussian budget contains still an 



ETROrEAN FOKKST I'OI.ICIES. 2(ti) 

item ol" l,()()(l,()()(l marks aiiiuially lor this purpose; and aitlioiijjh ovci-l!i;,(K)0,(l(M) iiiaiks and nearly 
lIOjOOO iunes of land iMve been spent Ibr tliis pnrpose in IJavaria, Mie State forests tliere art' still 
most lieavily burdened w itli s(!r\ itudes. 

The doctrine of the rej;al liglit to the eliase, as we have seen, led to the j^radiial assertion of 
all property rights to the forest itself, or at least to the exclusive (^ontiol of its use. This right 
found expression in a les^iou of forest ordinances in the lifteenth and sixteenth centuries, wiiich 
aimed at the conservation and improvement of forest areas, abounding in detailed technical 
precepts. 

At lirst treating the private interest with some consideration, they gradually more an<l iTiore 
restrict free nnmagement. Prohibition of absolute clearing, oi' at least only with the permission 
of the government; the command to reforest cleareil and waste jilaces; to foster the young 
growth; limitinj; the (juality of timber to \h\ felled; ])revciiting devastation by ])rohibiting the 
l)asturiug of cattle in the young growl h, of the removal of the forest litter, of pitch gathering, 
etc., were among these iirescrii)tions, and uuiiiy others, siu'li as prescribing the numncr and time 
of felling, the division into regular felling lot.s, determination as to w hat is to be cut as lirewood 
and what as building timber. Then, with the increasing lear of a reduction in sujiplics, followed 
j)roliibitions against exportation, against sale of woodlands to foreigners, against spt^culation in 
timber by i)roviding schedules of prictis, anil from time to time entire e\clusion from sale of some 
valuable species. Even the consumei' was restricted and controlled in the nuiuner of using wood. 

In media'val times, besides jjiivate fori^sts of the King and lords, only the communal forest 
(allinende) was known, ami small holdings of farmers were comj)aratively rare until tlu! eml of 
the Middle Ages. 

The thirty years' war and the .following troublesome times gave ris(^ not only to extended 
forest devastation, but also to many- changes in ownership of woodhiTids. AV'itli the growing 
instability of communal organization of the '• mark," division of thc^ common pioperty took i)Iace, 
and thus private ownershij) by small farmers came about, reducing the comuiunal holdings. 
Colonization schemes by holders ol' large estates also led to dismemberment. 

A very large amount of the mark fon^st came into possesssion of the jirinces and noblemen 
by force, and later possessions of the princes wen^ increased by the secularization of the pro[)(irty 
of monasteries and churches. Until the end of the last century these domains belonged to the 
family of the prince, Just as the right to the throne or the governing of the little dukedom, 
contributing toward the expenses of government. 

But when, as a conseipience of the Fi-ench Kevolution and the iSapoleonic wars antl 
subse(iuent changes, the conceptioTi of the rights of the governing classes changed, and in some 
kStates like Prussia nuich earlier, a division of domains into those which bi^longed to the prince's 
family as private property and those which were State forests w-as effected, so that now the 
following classes of forest property nuiy be distinguished: 

(1) State forests, which are administered by the government for the lienelit of the common- 
wealth, each State of the (Jon federation owning and administering its own. 

(2) Imperial forests, belonging to and administered for the benefit of the Em])irc, situatcil in 
the newly acquired province of Alsace-Lorraine. 

(3) ('rown forests (Fidci-commiss), the ownership of which remains in the reigning family, 
administered by State government, but the revenues of which art^ in part applicable to government 
expenses. 

(-1) I'l'incely domains, wliich are the exclusive and private property of the prince. 

(.5) Communal forests possessed by ;ind ailministcred by and for the benclit of village and 
city communities, or even jirovinces as a whole. 

(()) Association forests, the owners of the old •• marlc '" forests, possessed by a nuiid)ei- of 
owners, the State sometimes being part ownei'. 

(7) institute and cori)oration, school or bequest forests, which belong to incorpoiatcd institu- 
tions, like churches, hospitals, and othei' charitable institutions. 

(S) Private forests, of larger or snndler extent, the exclusive pi'opeity of priv;ite owners. 

The proportions of these das.ses of property which «!\isted in the beginning ol' the century 
11. Doc. ISl 11 



210 FORESTRY INVEtSTIGATK »NS i:. S. DEPARTMENT OF A(iRICULTUKK. 

expt'iieuccd considerable cliaugets by the sale of State forests, the sales being dne partly to 
financial distress, i)artly to a inistakeu application of Adam Smith's theories, which supposed that 
fiee competition would lead to a better management and highest development of the forest 
industry as well as of other industries. 

This tendency, however, was checked when the fallacy of the theory became apparent, 
especially with reference to a property that demands conservative treatment and involves such 
time element as we have seen. 

The hopes which were based on the success of individualistic ettbrts were not reali/.ed, and 
although control of private action had been retained by the State authorities, this could not 
always be exercised, and the necessity of strengthening the State forest administration became 
apparent. The present tendency, therefore, is not only to maintain the State forests, but to 
extend their area by ]iurchase, mostly of devastated or deforested areas and by exchange for 
agricultural lands from the public domain. Thus, in Prussia, the increase of State forest area has 
been at the rate of 11,000 acres per year siiu e lS(i7. 

In districts where small farmeis own extensive areas of barrens a consolidation is effected, 
the parcels of remaining forest and the barrens are put together, the State ac(|uires these and 
l)ays the owners either in money oi- other property. 

In Prussia, during the decade l.S8U-l<s;»l, ;!0,000 acres were in this way exchaiigeil Ibr 17,000 
acres, and in aildition some 200,0(10 acres, waste or poorly wooded, ])urchased at an expense of 
$.".,500,000, round numbers. During the same decade the refbiestation of SO, 000 acrc^s of waste 
lauds was (^Ifected, while nearly To, 000 acres in the State's jjossession remained to be reforested. 

The annual budget for tlies(^ reforestations of waste lands has been .•ii.~)00,000 for se\eral years. 

The area of barieus ami i>oor soils, only lit for forest purposes in Prussia, is estimated at over 
6,000,000 acres. 

The present- distribution of th(^ properly chisses for the whole I'lmijiri^ of the 35, 000, 000 acres 
of forest is about as follows, varying, to be sure, very considerably in the States of the Confed- 
eration : 

Vvv (ftiit . 

Statd and down fiircsls I of wliirU (l](^ CioNvii iiwiis less tliaii U jmr cent) 82. 7 

Iiiip<Ti:iI lores tw 1 

{'(iirumnial forests (r.,0lll),0l)(l .-icri'S) 15. L' 

.\HSociatioii forests -■•> 

Iiistituto forests 1.8 

l'iiv;itr forests IS. 3 

The State and Crown Ibrt'sts aic all under well-organized Ibrest administrations, sometimes 
accredited to the- minister of linancd, sometimes to the minister of agriculture. These yield an 
annual net revc^nuc of from ¥1 to •'t'5 and *(! per acre of forest area, with a constant increase Irom 
year to year, which will presently i)e very greatly advanced when the exi)enditures for road build- 
ing and other improvements cease. 

In the State management the constant care is not to sacrilice the economic siguiliciinct^ of the 
forest to the tiiiancial benefits that can be (leriv(Hl, and the amount cut is most conservative. 

The Imperial forests are of course maiuiged in the same spirit as the several State forests. 

While the present communities, villages, towns, and cities are only political corporations, they 
still retain in some cases in part the character of the "mark," which was based upon the holding 
of x)roperty. 

The supervision which the princes exercised in their capacity oi' Obermarker or as possessor 
of the right to the chase, remained, although based on other princiiiles, as a function of the State 
when the "nnirk" communities collap.sed, the piinciples being that the State was bound to protect 
the interest of the eternal juristical person of the community against the present trustees, that it 
had to guard against conflicts between the interest of the individual and that of the community in 
this projierty, and secure permanency of a piece of property which insured a continued and 
increasing revenue. The principle ui)on which the control of these communal holdings rests is 
then mainly a fiscal one. 

The degree of contnjl and restriction \aries in different localities. Sale and partition and 



EIROPEAN FOKK,^T I'OIJCIKS. 211 

cleariug (iiiu mo.stly take phwe ouly by peiiiiissioii of tlie ytate autlioiitics, ami is usually discouu- 
tcuaticed except lor good reasous (too luucli woods on agricultural soil). 

With ret'ereuce to 5.G i)ei' cent ot cominunal forest property, this is the only control which is of 
a fiscal luiture. The rest is more or less closely inllucuced in the character of its management, 
either by control of its technicalities or else by direct management and administration on the part 
of the Government. 

Technical control makes it necessary that the plans of management be submitted to the 
Government for sanction, and that proper officers or managers be emi)loyed who are inspected by 
Government foresters. This is the most general system, under which 4'.l. I per cent of communal 
forests are managed (as well in Austria and Swit/.erland), gixing greatest latitude and yet securing 
conservative management. To facilitate the management of smaller areas sexeral properties may 
be combined under one irutnager, or else a neigliboring government or ])ri\ ate forest manager 
nniy be employed to look after the technical management. 

Where direct management by the State exists, the State jicrfornis the management by its own 
agents with only advisory j)ower of the communal authorities, a system under which 15 per cent 
of the communal forests are managed (also in Austria and France). 

In I'russia this system exists only in a few localities, but it is since ISTO |)rovided as penalty 
for improper management or attempts to avoid the State control. 

This system curtails, to bo sure, communal liberty and possilily linancial results to some 
extent, but it has proved itself the most satisfactory Irom the standixiint of conservative forest 
management and in the interest of present and future welfare of the communities. Its extension 
is planned both in Prussia and liavaria. 

Sometimes the State contril)ut(!s toward the cost of the numagenu'iit on the ground that 
it is carried on in the interests of the whole commonwealth. A voluntary cooiieration of the 
communities with the State in regard to forest protection by the State forest guards is in 
vogue in Wurttemberg, and also in France. Institute tbrests are usually under similar control as 
the communities. 

The contnpl of private forests is extremely varying. A direct State control of some kind is 
exercised o\er only L'!>.7 per cent of the |)rivate forest, oi' 1 t.(i per cent of tlie total area, mostly 
in southern and middh^ tiermany. while 7(1.3 per (;ent of the ])rivate i)roperty, or ;>1.5 per cent of 
tlie total forest area, is entirely without control, a condition existing in Prussia and Saxouy. 

As far as the large laud owners are concerned, this lias mostly been of no detriment, as they 
are usually taking ailvantage of rational managenn-nt; but the small peasant holdings show the 
bad effects of this liberty tpiite tVeipiently in the devastated condition of the woods and waste 
places. As a recent writer ])Uts it: "The freedom of ])rivate forest ownership has in Prussia led 
not oidy to forest dismemberment and devastation, but often to change of forest into field. Gn 
good soils the result is something permanently better; on medium and poor soils the result has 
been that agriculture, after tlu; fertility stored u]) by the forest has been exhausted, has become 
unprofitable. These soils are now utterly ruined ami must be reforested as waste lands. 

Need, avarice, six-culation, and i)enury were developed into forest destruction when in tln^ 
beginuing of this c(Mitury the indi\idualistic theories led to an ai>an(lonnient of the control 
hitherto existing, and it was found out that the principle so salutary in agriculture and other 
industries was a fateful error in forestry. 

Where contrcd of private forests exists it takes various forms: 

(1) Prohibition to clear permanently or at least necessity to ask iiermission exists in ^\■urttem- 
berg, liaden, and jiartially in Pavaria. (Protection of ailjoiners.) 

(li) Enforced reforestation within a given time after removal of tlu^ old growth and occasionally 
on open ground where jndjlic safety requires. 

(3) Prohibition of devastation or deterioration — a vague and undefinable i)ro\ ision. 

(1) Definite jirescription as to the manner of cutting (especially on sand dunes, ri\er 
courses, etc.). 

(5) I'^nforced employment of qualified personnel. 

In addition to all these measures of restriction, control and [lolice, and enlorcemenf, then^ 



212 FOKESTKV INVESTIGATIONS U. S. DEI'AKTMENT OK A(iKl( TILTUKE. 

should be iiieutioiied the iiieasuies of cMicourageuieut, which consist in the opportunity for the 
ediicatiou of foresters, dissemination of information, and linancial aid. 

In the hitter respect J'russia, in the decade l.S.SU-1802, contributed for reforestation of waste 
phices by private owners ijs^J.jjOOO, besides large amounts of seeds and plants from its State 
uurseries. Instruction in forestry to farmers is given at twelve agricultural schools in Prussia. 
In nearly all States permission is given to (Government ofticcrs for compensation, to undertake at 
the request of the owners the regulation or even management of iirivate forest proi)erty. 

For the education of the low(^r class of foresters there may be some twenty special schools in 
Germany and Austiia, while for the higher classes not only ten special forest academies are 
available, but three universities and two polytechnic institutes have forestry faculties. 

IScsidcs, all States have lately inaugurated systems of forest experiment stations; and 
forestry associations, not of |>ro])agaiidists but of practitioners, abouiid. As a result of all this 
activity in forestry .sciciice and practice, not less than twenty forestry journals in the German 
language exist, besides many ollicial and association reports and a most jirolitic book literature. 



E. FORI^ST CONDITIONS AND METHODS OF FOREST MANAGE- 
MliNT IN (^.I^:RMANV, WITH A BRIEF ACCOUNT 01- l-OREST 
MANAGEMENT IN RRITISH INDIA 



Forest Area, Extent and OwNERsnip. 

(icniiaiiy, as (•oiistitutcil ;it. presenf, has an area of 133,00(),(»(l(i acres— about one liCtccntli ol 
(Mir .■oiuitiy— a population ofal.ont i7,(HHI,()0{), or less tlian ;i aeres per eapita, or only one-tentli ..I 
our per capita average. Its forests cover ,34,7tl(),()00 acres, or L'G per cent of the entire land surface. 
A large portion of the forests cover tlie poorer, eliietiy san(ly,.soils of the North (ierman plains, or 
occupy the longii, hilly, and steei)er mountain la,nds of the numerous smaller mountain systems, 
and a small iMution of the northein slopes of the Ali).s. They are distributed rather even'ly over 
Ihe entire Kmpire. I'liissia, with (10 per cent of the entire land area, j.ossesses li.t.r, pei- cent of 
forest land, while the rest of th(^ larger States have each over 30 per cent, except small, indus- 
triotis Saxony, which lies intermediate, with -'7 per cent of forest cover. 

(Umsidering th.' smaller districts of Prussia, ISavaria, and the smaller States, it is found Ihal 
oiit of (;i iM-ovinces and distri.'ls, IS have less than L'O ].er cent forest: IS |,;,,v,, f,om '20 (.. -!) per 
.•ent; L';!, including the greater pari of the country, have from .;() to .'I!) i)er cent, and ', of Ihe 
smaller districls have from 40 to II j.ei' ceid of forest. The dislri.-ts conlaining less Ihan L'O prr 
cent of forests are, as miglil be supposed, mostly fertile farming districts in winch (he jdow land 
lorms over 10 per cent of the land, but they also include neglected districts lil«, Hanover and 
Luneburg, where a former shortsighted, sellish, and imiirovident policy has led to the deforesfa- 

""" "'I '•'""♦ l^ii.ds, which have gradually been transformed into l.eaihs, where an accumnlathiii 

of bog iron or.', and other obstacles render the attempts at reforestation difticidt, ex))eMsivc, and 
unsatisfactory. L.'ft to forests, these same lands, which now are unable to furnish sui)i.(nt lo 
farmers or to i)roduce a revenue to their owner, .■oiild easily pay the (axes and inlerest on a 
capilal of s.-)0 (o ¥100 per acre. To n-forest them now cos(s ^10 to *.-)0 per acre and recpiires a 
lilefime before any reluins can be exiiected. 

Since it is (me of th.- .•ommoii claims in the eastern United States that the land is all needed 
for agriculture, and since it will be conce.led that in hardly any Stat.> east of the JMississippi 
ninch land necessarily remains unfilled, it may be of inter.'st to note that in this denselv ].opulated 
I'anpire of (Jermany cmt of (17 districts and provinces the plow land forms less than L'O i)ercent in 
•1 districts, ,!0 to ;;!» ])er (wnt in 10 districts, 40 to I'.t per cent in 20 districis, .-.(I to r,!» ],er c((n( 
in L'O distri.'is, and <;o to (lit i)er cent in 7 districts, in spite of (he fact that a large part of the 
forests are in private hands ami would be cleared if the owners saw lit to do so. 

In our country the total area in farms is only IS jjerceut at juesent. 

Of the total of ;5l, 700,000 acres of forest land (an area about as large as the State of W is 
cousin) 32.7 per cent beh.ngs to the several States as Stale i)roperty; lit percent belongs (o 
villages, towns, and odier corporations, and 50 j.er cent to jnivate owners, a considerabh" part of 
this being in large estates of the nobility. 

2i:j 



214 



FOKKSTUY INVKSTIOATIOXS V. S DEPART.MENT OF AGRICIXTIIRE. 



Tlic lollowiiij;' tiguivs show these ownership rehitions for the eight linger States, which 
involve '.»! per cent of the total area of the empire: 





ropulatiiin. 


Totalland 
Miirlace. 


Forests. 


St:itc'. 


Tr.t.al, 


PerceDt. 


Owned by the — 




State. 


Cor|iora 

tiuDS. 


Private. 




47 


21 ircrrs. 
133, 392 


21 at'n's. 
34, 750 


100 


M floret. 
11,360 


M arres. 
6,710 


.1/ acres. 
16, two 






., ■ 


29.9 
5.6 
1.9 

'l!(i 

1.5 

.9 

.5 


88. 000 
18, 800 
4, 800 
3 7110 
3,730 
3, 600 
1 , 900 
3, 290 


20, 210 
6, 200 
1.470 
1. 0211 
1.300 
1,100 
590 
660 


58 

18 
4.2 
3 
4 

3.1 
1.7 
l.G 


6,100 
2,160 
480 
430 
237 
360 
170 
255 


3. 2l0 
890 
470 

60 
667 
520 
220 

85 


10, 900 


r.avari.T 


3, 150 
530 




530 


Ilail.i,' 


447 
220 




200 


AleoUlrnlmrt^-Schwcrii) 


220 



This same relation, expressed in per cent, becomes: 



(itrni.'iny 

T*rnsaia 

n;iv:iii;t 

Wiirlt.cnilHTi;; 

SiiXniiv 

iiil.lrn' 

A1s;h-o Liu raiiie 

H^^sst) 

Mi'-clili^nlnirir-Si^Iiwrriii 



Fi>teat 


Fo 


ests owiicd 


by- 


cover of 
total area. 


States. 


Corpora- 
tions. 


Private. 


Per cfnt. 


I'er cent. 


Per cent. 


Per cent. 


25.7 


32.7 


19 


48.3 


23.5 


30 


17 


53 


35 


34 


14 


52 


31 


32 


32 


36 


27 


43 





51 


37 


1.1 


49 


33 


30 


33 


47 


21) 


31 


29 


37 


34 


17 


46 


15 


30 



The condition of the forests to a great extent depends on tli(^ degree of supervision or control 
exerci.sfd )iy the State authorities. It is best in all ca.ses in the State forests, is ecjually good in 
the c(Hi)oration foresis under State control, and is poorest in the i)rivate forests, ])articnlaily those 
of small holders. 

STATE CONTROL. 

The amount of State iuHueuce or control varies in the several States, and varies in some cases 
even in one and the same State for dilVereut districts. Of the State f<u'ests, without exception, it 
can be said that they are nearly in that form which, according to present knowledge and with 
reasonable effort, is able to ])ro(iluce the greatest (juautities of wood material in those dimensions 
and of such kinds as best to satisfy the demands of the markets and at the same time render the 
management as profitable as possible. This does not mean that they are not improving, for as 
forestry knowledge increases and the methods are jierfected the results are better. Friun what 
follows it also ajipears that all State foiests as a whole ]>ay, and jiay handsomely, when the low 
intrinsic' value of the land on which the forest stocks is considered. 

The control of the cori)or;ition foiests is perfect only in a few of the smaller States, notably 
Baden, Hesse, and Alsace-Lorraine: al.so in .some districts in Trussia where the corporatiou forests 
are managed by the State authorities, the wishes of the villagers or corporate owners being, however, 
always duly considered. 1 n a large portion of Prussia, in Wurttemberg, and in ISavaria the corpora- 
tion provides its own foresters; but these must be approved, as well as their jilans of operations, by 
the State authorities, so that here the management is under strict control of the State, and favora- 
ble fon^st conditions at least partially assured. In Wurttemberg the corporation is given the choice 
of sujiplyiiig its own foresters or else joining their forests to those of the State. This has led to 
State management of near 70 per cent of all corporation forests. Only the corporation forests of 
Saxony and those of a small part of Prussia are without any supervision. Of the private forests, 
those of Prussia and Saxony, involving (>9 per cent of all private forests of the Empire, are entirely 
free from interference. They can be managed as the owner sees fit, and there is no obstacle to their 
devastation or entire clearing and conversion into tiekl or i>asture. The remainder of the jn-ivate 
forests are under more or less supervision. In most districts a State permit is required before 



CEWMAN FORKS'!' CkNOITIONS. 215 

1:111(1 can he cleared. Devastatimi is an ollcnse, and in some Stiit(!s, notably Wiiittenibei j^-, a badly 
neglected forest property may l)e rdbrested and manacled by State aiitiioi ities. hi nearly all 
States laws exist with rei;ard to so-called "proteclive Ibresis" i. e., forests needed to |)reveiit Itoods, 
sand blowing, land and snow slides, or to insure regularity of water snpi)ly, etc. l''orests proved 
(() fall under this catcgorj- are under spe(;ial control, but as it is not easy in most cases to prove 
lli(! i)rote(;ti\e iiniiortance of a ibrest. the la\\s an' dillicult to apjily and rarely iMiforec^d. 

A partial return to the iState super\ision of ])rivat(^ forests has been attenipted in I'rnssia, by 
the establishment of a law which renders the owner of a Ibrest liable for the da-ma<ie which the 
(b'vastation or clearing- of his forest iiropcrty causes to his neighbor. This law, however, like the 
Ibrmer, is so ditlicnlt to api>ly, and puts the plaintilf to j;reat expense, so that so far it has not 
been enforced to any extent except where the (lovernment itself is tlie injured jiarty. 

In th(^ followiiiij; statement the areas of forest are grouped according to the degrees of Htate 
supervision iin<l manner of management: 

Of the entire .> 1,7(10,000 acres of forest land, there are a-piiroxiniately — 

(1) Managed by .State authorities as State ]iropcrty, 11,. {(lOjflOO acres, which is ;>2.7 ])er cent. 

(-) Managed by tlu^ State authorities, but lln^ i»roi>erty of coriiorations, villages, towns, etc., 
a little over 2,'JI2,0()0 acres, which is <'>..{ per cent. 

(•!) Under strict (iovernm(^nt control, the plans of management and the jiermissiblecut havin'g 
to he ai)i>rove(l by State authorities (corporation pro])erty), 3.S7."i,((tiO acres, which is 11.1 jter cent. 

(I) I'lider super\ision of the State, not only as common property bnt as sjiecial ](roperty, 
snbJcM't to insiiection and, in part, to control of State forest authorities; nearly all ])rivate prop- 
erty and partl.\- belonging to Iarg(^ estates, 1,707, 000 acres, which is 1.3.7 per (;eut. 

(5) Without any (iovernment control or supervision beyond tliat of coinmon property. Theses 
forests may be (li\ itled, sohl, cleartid, and mismanaged, except under the cc-rtain cases l>elbl■c^ men- 
tioned. Here belong all private Ibrests of Saxony and l*i-nssia and part of thi' eoiporation forests 
of I'russia and all those of Saxony, 11,41)0,000 acres, which is .1.') per cent. 

CIIAUACTKR nv FORKST GROWril. 

The greater part of the (leiinan forests is stocked with c(uiifers, chielly i)inc (the Scotch pine, 
a pine similar to our red or Norway jiine) and s])ruce. The pine prevails on the sandy areas of 
North (ierniany, anil occupies about (iO jier ciMit of the Prussian and .'!0 per cent of the IJavariaii 
forests. I'he spruco is tlii^ cliief conifer and jirincipal timber tree of Saxony and southern tier- 
many. The hard woods, chietly beech, some oaks, with small amounts of ash, maple, elm, etc., 
are most abundant in the valley of the Rhine. Lorraine, ami Wurttemberg, but good beech forests 
occur in nearly all parts of the Empire. 

The greater part of all forests of (ierniany are " timber forests,'" where the trees are (ait at an 
age of over SO years (generally 00 to IL'O years).' Timber forests form over !)0 per ceut of the State 
forests of all larger Staters, ar<^ the iu-(!valent Ibrm in t'he tbrests of corporations, and are commoii 
in those of private owners. The other two common forms, the "coppice" and "standard coiipice," 
where the trees are cut at an age of less than .'iO years (usually 15 to 2."> years, and in the standard 
coppice a small i)art only is allowed to i-each better age and size), are most abundant in i)rivate 
forests and to a less extent in corporation projierties, but tbiiii only a very small part of the 
State woods, wluM-e th(\v are steadily diminishing in importance. The cojipice is a hard wood 
forest, depends on the sprouting (^apa(;ity of the trees, and furnishes small poles, firewood, and 
tanbark. lioth tbrms of the cop|)ice and standard coppice reipiire a smaller amount of standing 
timber, furnish quicker returns, but do not furnish those, kinds of jnoducts which the market 
d(Mnaiids in largest (luantity. 

In the timber fonsst the trees of any ])articular tract or division are supposed to be of about 
the same age, ditrering not over L'O years in the extreme, so that for a rotation of one hundred 
years, i. e., a management where the croii is harvested at the age of 100 years, one fifth, or 130 per 
cent, of all the forests should be 1 to 20 years old; another 20 ])er cent, 21 to 10 yeai-s old, etc. 
In sjute of the great difliculty of attaining this regularity of distribution in the forests of an 
entire State without disturbing the yearly cut of timber, this regularity is already attained very 
closely in most of the State Ibrests. Thus in the State forests of Prussia, of the total area of 



' For fuller dcscriiitiou of the systems of muuageuient, see pp. i!20 to 2'j'J of this report. 



•21(1 



FORKSTRY INVESTIGATIONS 11, S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 



timber t'luest (00 i)pi- cent of all State forests), the age of the timber is as follows: On 13 per cent 
of the area, over 10(1 years old; on 13 per cent, 81 to 100 years old; on 14 per cent, 61 to 80 .years 
old; on 18 per cent, 41 to GO years old; on 10 per cent, lil to 40 years old; on 10 ])er cent, 
1 to 20 years old, and about 4 per cent are clearins'S, where the timber has been cut lately. In all 
forests the ground is at once reforested, if cut clean, or else the cut is so arrangeil that a natural 
seeding goes on as the harvest progresses, this latter consisting of several fellings, separated by a 
uuinber of years. 

EXPLOITATION. 

The cutting in all State forests is generally done by the cord or by the cubic foot (really by 
the stere, festmeter, or cubic meter). In rare cases the timber is cut and moved by the jmrchaser; 
nearly always it is cut and moved by the forest authorities and sold and delivered at the main 
roads. The logs are not cut to uniform lengths, but care is had in the forest to cut to best advan- 
tage. Long, straight timbei s are left long, if possible, and sold as long, round, or sometimes hewn 
pieces; saw timber is cut in even k?ngths; ])ol(^s are cut to suit local markets; wagon and coopers' 
stock', eti'.,aie cut to suit, or left in round timbers, while puli) wood, cord wood, and branches, and 
sometimes even stumps, are W((rked up in customary manner, graded, and sold by the cord 
(really ''stere'' or " rannimeter"). 

In the conversion of the logs into lumber there are more complications in dimensions than 
with us. The measure is generally the meter and centimeter; edging is not done by even numbers. 
Lunil)cr is sold by cubic measure, and the handling is thus generally not so simple as in America. 

As far as practical means and methods in felling and logging operations go we can learn but 
little from (ierniany, except that more care in the utilization of the timber would be ])rolitable 
here as it is abroad. Yet it may be of interest, and not entirely devoid oi' suggestive value, to 
briefly recite the ])ractices followed in most (lovernment forests. 

The location of fellings for the year having been determined with due consideration, the 
rangers engage anil control, under supervision of the distric^t manager, the crew of wood choppers 
under a foreman, who are mostly men living in the neighborhood of the range or district and 
accustomed to all kindsof forest work.' A contract, which contains conditions, regulations, and 
a scale of prices, is made with them, which they sign. The men are paid by the .job, the ])rices 
jier unit dilfering, of course, in (liH'erent localities and being graded according to the kinds of 
timber, size, etc. 

To cite one cxam])le we may take the schedule prices jiaid at the forest belonging to the (^ity 
of Goslar, as this will interest us further on. There are 40 men nearly permanently em[)loyed 
either in wood chopping, planting, or otherwise, ami their average earnings during three years 
have been about SO cents i)er working da.y. The prices for cutting spruce, including moving to 
roada and barking, and the average prices obtained for ten years were as follows: 



('ost of cutliiij; 



Saw tinihor, ahiivn 5 inclios in dijinioter (T) clasMfs), 85 cciiIm pi-r 100 inbic feot. 

LoiiK |>oli'>i Ci rliissrsi. IViiiii S^l ci-iit.s tii$l.liS i»t1()I) culiir. Irel 

SiiKill |i(il.» (4 iljasrs). from $l.;i7 to.f:!.()7 jiiT KlU cilliir. fei-t 

Fin- wood. Mpl it, Til cents to $1 per <-onl 

l-'irfwood, linisli, $1.10 per nird 



Avera;;o 


jirice ob- 


tained 


in tlK> 


wo 


Kls. 


Lowest 


Higliest 


class. 


class. 


.$9. 50 


$10. 20 


0. '.«> 


7.00 


3.60 


5. HO 


3. (iO 


4.30 




1.60 



In Prussia the average cost of lumbering (wood cutting and bringing to roads) for all kinds 
and dimensions is 05 cents per 100 cubic feet; that is to say, tlu^ wood-choppers' bill on the 
300,000,000 .solid cubic feet of wood harvested annually in the Prussian tlovernnient forests 
amounts to $1,050,000. It will appear from the prices lor wood cited that often the harvesting is 
more expensive than the price obtained, as, for instance, for brushwood, which will hardly sell for 
half the cost of cutting, but its removal is necessary from cultural considerati(uis. The wond 
choppers are also sometimes expected to move th(! cordwood at least to the neighboring roads, so 
as to obviate the driving of teams through the woods or young growth. 



' In the census of Geniian.v I'm' 1SS1-S2 I hero wcni reported as eiii^a^cd in I'lirestry, hunting, and fishing 384,637 
perHiins. IJnfbrtiniately, no division of tlie tliree oconpafioiis was made. 



(JKRAFAN I'OIlKsr MANAUKMENT. 



217 



If tUe fellins' is to hv n ciciiriiij;-, ;i strii) is ;issij>iic(l to eacli H'iug of ■> incii, 1 with ;iii ax ami 13 
witii saws (fellins' "itli tho saw, of course, is the rule); if a rcuciicration ciittiii',' or thinning, tiie 
trees to be taken are carefully selected liy the ranger or inaTiaucr and marked with a iiiarkiiig 
liaimner. As a rule, all fellings are done during winter, and all trees, except in tiie co|)|iice and 
small ])<des, are felled with the saw close to the ground. In the pineries of the North (rciniau 
plain, where the root wood is salable, they are even dug out and then sawed off close to I he root, 
thus saving a. good piece of log timber, which in Saxony increases the wood valu(> of the harvest 
by fully .'5 per cent. Which i)arts of the log are to be cut into firewood and which into lumber 
wood or special timbers, and the length of the same according to the best use that can be nnide 
of the stick, are determined by the forenuin, or in valuable timber by the ranger or manager 
himself. A scale of sizes and classes of timber (sortinuMit) exists; in general, all wood over .'i 

inches diameter is called Derhholz (coarse w 1 or luml)er wood), all below •"> inches is brushwood 

(Keisholz), with which root wood (Stockluil/,) is classed. These last two grades are useil as lire- 
wood, with which is also classed body wood or split wood (8cheitholz), split from i)ieces over 
inches diameter at the smkiII end, and lound billet wood (Kniippellndz) of 3 to (! intthes diameter. 

The wood to be used in the arts, called timljer wood (Nutzholz), may appear either in bolts, 
corded, oi- in logs. The diameter measurement of logs is made by the ranger, with calipers, at 
the middle of the log. Every cord and every log is uundjered and tiie diameter and length Ti()t<?.d 
on the log, and a list prepared in which the cubic contents are cahulated. From this list the 
manager checks off the result of the felling, marking each ]nece or cord with the marking hammer, 
and after advertisement sells at public auction, in the woods or at son'e public place, the single 
pieces or cords to the highest bidder over and above the (roverunient rate, which for the different 
grades is established every three years on the basis of, but below current market jirices. The 
sale of logs is made ])er cubic foot, and the size of the log inlluences the rate or pri(;e, heavier logs 
being disproportionately higher iu price. 

rUICE OF WOOD IN TIIE FOREST. 

During the years ISS1-1S.S7 the Ibllowing ])rices were obtained by the I'lussian forest adminis- 
tration lor wood iu the forest. This is practically tor stumpage, cut and marked, the buyer hauling 

it from the woods; 

Price per imi ciihie feel of wood in Prussia. 



rifi-.s cmitriiniiiL' 18 3(1 rwliic feet. 



TiiiilH-r: 

Oiik 

Ucfch. asli. fllii. iiialilo 

S|inHM' 

I'ini. 

Kiri'winid : 

KctM-li, :isli. i-Iin. tiiaplo 

SpriK'o 

I'iiw 



L(iwi-at Highest 
l»rii-o. prire. 



ifl7.:io 
12. -jr. 

11.00 



.75 
.40 

. 4ri 



1, 



A 


venis; 


H 




pn 


•e. 


00 


*I-' 


on 


M 


7 


r.o 


H 


r>o 


7 


00 


« 


00 


'' 


'2'> 


H 


:!5 


I 


00 


1 


20 




70 




85 




SO- 




90 



To gain an idea of the ajipreciation of the wood product, without reference to kind, size, and 
quality, the ibllowing series of figures will serve: 

Average jirice iiir loo eiiliiv fel of wood reiili:e<l hij llir I'ritssion (Uirerinninl for i/.v eniire trop (alioiil .1oofioo,oo0 

eithic feet). 
Year. Trico. 

■ 1850 $;i. :i7 

isr>r> '. :i. 6i; 

isiio :{. (i!) 

isor. 1.71 

1870 i.:i.') 

1875 n. 21 

1S80 1. 17 

iss^' 1. :!ii 

18il0 1. 10 

Tlu^ highest price Ibr any district was obtained in IS.SS, being >iS.4!t, while the lowest was 
•S2..S2. The lower prices in later years are explained 1)\' the large impurlations ol' wood, es]iecially 
from Hungary, K'ussia, and Sweden: for while our misinformed tbrestry Iriends ])oint to (Sermany 
as the Hldorado of fonistry and iiroclaim the proportion of forest area there maintained, namely, 



21S FORESTRY INVESTIGATIONS V. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 

about '2r> per cent, ;is the ideal and necessary for self-sui)i)ort, and therefore to be maintained also 
in this country, they overlook the fact that Germany imports not less than §(i(),000,()0(» worth of 
wood and wood manufactures, mostly of the same kind as yrown or manufactured in that country. 
This re])resents about 10 per cent of the total consumiition of (iermany, while tln^ importations 
of the United States, which imports from (Jaiuida only competing classes of forest products, 
represent not more than 1 per cent of our probable consumjition. 

The exports of forest products from Germany, on the other hand, are, to be sure, nearly .">(» 
per cent of her imports, but they represent mostly manufactures, while in the United States the 
reverse is the case; that is to say, the United States exports twice as mucli as it im])orts, and tliat 
mostly raw material, namely, twice as mu(-h in value of raw material as of manufactures. 

Th(i countries from which (iermany imports raw or i)artly manufactured wood are mainly 
Russia, Austria Hungary, and Sweden, which furnish nearly five sixths of the total importation, 
while Holland, England, Denmark, Uelgium, France, and Switzerland draw about .fl4,()( )(),(•( 10 
worth of raw material from Germany. (See tables further on.) 

To protect the forest owners of tiermany, a tariff on importations was imposed in 1885 and 
increased later. (Jf the effects of this last measure a governnient report says that as a financial 
measure these tariffs have had excellent success, for the revenue from these duties increased from 
s(l4(!,000 ill ISSO to •i'^T.'WjOOO in lS8(i. But for the forest owner the hoped for results did not 
become apparent; the Austro-IInngarian railroads and ship]>iiig interests lowt-red their rates so as 
to largely equali/.e the duty charges. Tiie duties on unmanufactured materials being very low. the 
lack of results in the market of tliese is still more noticeable. Yet a salutary effect is stated to 
be a j)revention of still lower prices, and l)(^cause otherwise there would have been a lack of useful 
occiii)ation for labor finding remunerative emiiloyment in the manufacture of the raw material, 
which, withonf the increase in duties, would have been imported in manufactured (;onditioii. 

I'lJlCK (IK MANUFACTURED HTJIBER. 

The following sani])les of schedules for manufactured lumber, always delivered at the raih-oad 
station, may serve to give an idea, to our lumbermen how nearly piictes compare with those 
prevalent in our country. We choose those of eastern provinces, which are in sharpest (;ompetition 
with b'ussian and Hungarian imports: 

i^ror'nifc, of roKftt. 

'I'imiici- (7-S.5 inrli si|u:iri-): 

I'iiK^ per cubic foot.. $0.20 to ^0.22 

Spriico do .10 

I'iiie (Solcli): 

l'l;inl< {2-1 incli), :i eliisses per 1,000 feet li. M.. 27.00 :iS. 00 

I'liuilv (U-i;; incli), ;{ classes do 26.00 :U.OO 

Flooring (l-iuch), 3 classes do. . .. 17. 00 22.00 

)'"looriiig (l.l-incli), 3 <'lasse.s do 20.00 20.00 

S|iriice, rough boards, not edged H-^ iueh) do.. .. 12. 00 

Spnici^ (li.incli), edged, 12-l.S feet do 20.00 22.00 

Dfln-crdl III Ilerliii. • 

O.ak (clear), 82 cents per cubic foot, or $0S per 1,000 feet I!. M. 

Elm, 78 cents per cubic foot. 

R.ailroad (ios — pine, l."i ((-nts; oak, ilO-l)5 cents. 

It will be seen that prices for some grades are as high as and higher than in New York. The 
manager is expected to secure at least the government rate, and has discretion in conducting the 
sales to the best advantage of the government. Under certain circumstances sales by contract 
without aui-tioneering, and, lately, selling on the stump, are permitted. 

The transportation from the woods, as stated before, is usually left to the buyer; rarely does 
the administration float the timber or cord wood out, or carry it to a dejiot or wood yard to be sold 
from there, or engage in milling or other operations. On the other hand, it has been recognized 
during the last twenty-flve years that good roads and other ready means of transportation increase 
the price of the wood disproportionately. A good road system is, therefore, considered the most 
n(!cessary eipiipmeut of the administration, and an extension of permanent and movable logging 
railroads is one of the directions of modern improvement. The interesting, important, and 
practical features to us iu the logging railroads are their movable character, being divided into 



ROADS IN' (IKIIMAN KOKESTS. 



21!) 



sets of pairs of sbort (2 to 5 yard) rails (12 to l(i poiuids i)er yard) attaclied to iVoin two to four 
cross-ties, wood or metal, tlie li.tilit sets wt'ijjlnni;' "•") to 10(1 [xmiids (lica\y sots up to Hid i)ounds), 
so that one workman can readily carry tlieni; the ready (connection of sets, one hooking at once 
into the other without separate mechaidsm, forming a sufticiently satisfactoiy joint; the sirajjle 
"climbing switch,'' which is ajipiied on top of the track, ])ermitting ready transfer from side track 
to main track and ready rehication. Tln^se roads (;an ho readily laid down witliont much or any 
substructure ami readily leltuMted. The cost is shown in the following statement: 

For a liilly ciiiniijiril ruail, L'l tn L'S incln^s wiiltli, 11 iiiili^K Icngtli, I'or rails anil ties $!t, (1(10 

For oarthworU. if any, ami layiiif; 50 to oOO 

For rolliun stocU and aiiparatus li, oOO 



V>, (MIO 
Or $2,00(1 ptir m\U' at tlip lii^'liest. 

Upon a basis of .S()(),0()(» cidjic feet (about 7,()0(I,()0I» feet 1'.. M.) to be transportt^d, it is calculated 
that t\w cost of trans])ortatiou by raih'oad, stone road, and dirt road will be about as 1 :2:(!, the 
cost on the first lieing ai)out .'! ccMits jier 1,(100 feet 15. M. per mile as against IS cents on dirt roads. 

(Jomparing the cost of construction it is stated that the ratio between corduroy, gra\(d road 
(13 feet wide), niacadani, and niovabh^ track is as 1 : l.LT): l!.,'!."i : 1.17, placing tiie last among tiie 
cheapest. 

A most instinctive exliibit at the World's I'^aii', in mariy ways, especially at the present time, 
since the movement for better roads in this (toniitry lias begun, was theinodel of the city forest of 
(loslar, a small town (1.'!.,'500 inhabitants) in the llaiz iMonntains, whose citizens, from this piece 
of ])roi)erty, a spruce forest of 7,.3(iS acres extent, derive not only tiieir pure drinking water, 
healthful enjoyment in hunting, and re/'reshing coolness in Rummer, but also a Tiet income, 
amounting in round uumbers to .'Jur),0(l0 (s.t.io per acre), toward payment of city taxes. This 
is the result of careful management, which permits an annual cut of .J.'iO.OOO cubic feet of wood. 
Of this only r)0,000 cubic feet goes into firewood, and l(i per cent, or 1(10,000 cubic feet, is saw 
timber, which sells at 10 to 10 cents i)er cubic foot; whihc smaller dimensions, poles, etc., sell all 
the way down to below t cents, and firewood at ^l.fiO for brush to *1.;'.0 for si)lic or round wood 
\)er cord. Until 1S7.^) the district was without proper roads. iJy an effort of the competent 
manager the city fathers were jjcrsnaded to locate and build a rational system of roads on which 
altogether, until is'.tl, there was spent for building and maintenance about $25,000. 'i^ie greatest 
interest attaches to the statistics carefully gathered by the district manager, Mr. JJenss, since it 
is always diflicult to determine the money value of such an ex|»enditiire in dollars and cents. 

The i)ropi'r location of the roads is the most important feature. The roads are ranked 
according to tlu'ir imiiortance; the width and manner of finish depend on their rank. Main roads 
are macadamized ; roads of third rank, which are used for occasional hauling of wood, are dirt roads. 

These statistics were exhibited in a neat table, as follows: 



STAiisTics (IF i:oAi> svsTKM IN KouEsr ni.sTiacT oi'' CITY i>v oosi.Aii (OAHZ iMi )tr\TA I Ns, 1 :ki:m A N Y ) . 

Properly looatcil, jirailnil, ami bnilt roads rcdiico cost of lo^fjinj; .nid liaulin};, and advanir tlie priic for wood. 
Area, 7,!!l)S acn^s s]iriiiMi fon'str; annnal cut, HoO.OOO ciihio feet; road hnildiiii; liei;nn in IST"); total nulcaj^c of 
improved roads in ISDl, III miliw; cost of road system and maintcn.ancc until ISltl, $25,000. 

Cost of hiijijhiii yidiirtil hi/ ijooil }oij(jinij rotid-s. 
[Daily \va;;f.s rt-niainin;; foiistant at 60 ii-nts ] 



Year. 


Leimili "f 
wi-ll limit 

roads, 

12 

:{7 
111 

r»ii 

hi 


Cost ..(■ 
lnirj;iii{r iHT 

lllOrllllii- 
let , 


1877 


!fl,o:i 


1878 . . . 


l.UI 




1,54 


1880 ... . . 


I.4,'> 


1881 


1. 1.^. 
I.'JII 
1, V, 

1,-j:; 


1882 


18H3 


1881 





Savini; per 100 cubic Hie-t »" "0 

Saving ou annual cost of 350,000 cubic Icot 2, 450 00 



220 



FOKES'IKY TNVESTIG.VTIONS U. S. DEPARTMENT OF ACUICULTURE. 



Cofft of InniUqir reduced hij ijood iraijint roads. 
[Price jior load miinininL: con.sl.'uit at $3.60. Full liiad. lieforo iiiiino\ iim-nt. 85-lilil ciiMc feet,; after iinproveinent, 175-250 cubic feet.) 



Tear. 



1871-1877, before road improvements . 

187S-1H84 

1885-1891 



Cost of 

haulage 

per 100 

cubic feet. 



$1.52 
.98 
.80 



S.ivinj; per 10" cubic fc-ct $0.72,0.1 

Saving' oil aiiiiiial cut of 350,000 cubic feet 2,520.00 

I'ricf of ii'iiod iufliiciufd hij road imiiroreiiicnts. 
[Oompariaoii of prices paid at (loslar and at other Ilarz di.stricte.] 



Yi.ar. 


Lenfftli of 

iiupnucd 

wagon 

roads. 


Prices for wtiod per 100 cubic feet. 


At (ioslar. 


At otiier 
Har/. dis- 
tricts. 


Difierence 

in favor of 

Goslar. 

$0. 07 
.61 
1.15 
1.35 
1.27 
1.02 
1 , 02 
1 99 

.i;4 

.20 
1.41 
1.14 

.8) 
.82 
1.33 




Miles. 

34 
42 
55 
64 
68 
71 
77 
7K 
79 
81 
82 
8:i 
85 
87 


$8. 25 

8, (i.'i 
9.59 
a 79 

9. 05 
8.45 
8.65 

10.17 

8. 8S 

9. 59 
11.12 
11.12 
11.39 
11.72 
13. 13 


$8.18 
8. 01 
8.44 
8.44 
7.78 
7.43 

7. 03 

8. 18 
8 24 
9.39 
9.71 

9. 98 
10.58 
10,92 
11,80 


1H78 






1881 


1K82 


18ft3 


1881 




1886 ' 


1887 








1891 


.\vciai;e for fiftci'ii years 




9.91 1 8.98 


.93 



Increase in iiricc <oi total cut of' 350,000 cubic, feet $3,2.55 

Total lu-otil Ironi iiiipr4>ve)i roail system in reduced cost of lo;:iiiiig aod liauliiiti, aiol in atUanee of price received for wooil, per aliliuiu 8,225 

Or nearly 33 per ciuit on invcstnuuit. 

Sarinij Ihi'ir rosi in lini //crtr.v. 

Cost, of iiiail, iiiacuduiiiizccl in l.s.S.'i, $(l,!lilil; iiiaititcii.nir<( foroiui year, .f ISO; ti>t;il, $7,440. Hiiriiif; l.ss.'.-.sf, liaiiliiif; 
-170,000 ciihic f,...| rciiiiiiiiij; oti old rotul 1,27:{ liia.ls of 110 cnliic, t'fvt :t\via'ir, at $:H.tiO, $I5,1'!S2.M0 (or .$-'.70 jut 1,000 
IVi't I'.. M. ) ; on iniproviul road, -'.(ir.'J load.s of 177 .uliic Icct average, a,t $:!.«), $9,,"'i47.L"0 (or $1.70 i><t 1,000 L t li. M. 1, 
savini; of $1 for rxevy 1.000 feet B. M. 'I'olal .saving- in Iiaiilaoe, .$.">, 7M.").<;0, or 77 por ocnli on cost of road in oiio yc'af. 

YlKLl) I'Ki; ACRE. 



Tlic luiiiiniit <)1' f iiiihor cut \tor acre is very large as compared with average yields in wild woods. 
Of late the average yitild has varied from about 5,500 cubic; feet per acre in Prussia to 9,000 cubic 
feet for the Saxon State forests. The yield has been steadily increasing since the beginning of 
this century, and in most States it lias been nearly doubled through better nianagement. At that 
earli<'r t\mo much land was badly stocked or devoid ol' any cover, much timber was injured and 
stunted by continual rtunoval of the litter and coii.sequent impoverishment of the soil, and in most 
forests th(^ young timber occupicil much more than its share of ground, and thus less timber grew. 
In every one of the States and districts these coiiditiims have been changed materially for the 
better, the cut was incn^ased from year to year, the wood capital or standing timber grew in total 
amount, and the jiroductive ctipacity of tlit^ foic^st soils has generally improved. The cut for any 
given province or State is generally given as so much per acre of total area. Tiius the cut for 
Saxony is placed .at '.to cubic; feet per at^re of total forest area, though, of course, the yield of those 
tracts actually cut was about 0,000 cubic feet per acre (;ut. Jii the following table the figures 
relating to the State forests are from recent ollicial records, also those of the corporation forests 
of Baden, Alsace-Lorraiiu;, Havaria, and jtarts of VViirttemberg, while the ligures for private 
forests and most of the <'orporation forests are estimates based on the experience of former yeans 
and of only part oj' the provin(;es. 



VIKLI) OK (iKKMAN KoKKS'l'S. 

Yfarhl cut pry am- in fin Sf((t, tint! ofher/nrr-^ls <»/' t'.rrmanij iin million <i(hirf'tit.) 



221 



Usin 
lollows: 



<'ii), per iicrc uf IViri'sli'il ;irfu. 



riiMl.iT 
iihI IioII 



For tlit^ I'll t in > Km pin- 

Stall' fi.n-.slsnf - 

rnit^Mui 

H;iv;iri;l 

W urtlriM IxMj; 

SuMinv 

Huiliin 

AlNiiCf-Ijnriaine 

Hc-.ssi. 

Mt'-cklriilMii i; Siliwerin 

Tlie fill in- Km I lira 

('oipKraliim Corrsts iiC the ciitiro Kminri' a. 
l*riv;itf forcslH ut the entire lOmpire h 



lotal lill 
eliliilll" ... , 
^tiiiiip:iii.l ■,,,,,.1.,.^ 
lii:iiieli .•nun. N size unite 

w„..,l (iH.Ntnnip, ,.|,, ,,„„, 

wli.ie , " "■ ' tin wneil). 

ll.seil), J 



51 


42 


la 


72 


Ti* 


24 


SI 


li" 


:ni 


7i 


V, 


.'.4 
24 


."iT 


41) 


22 


7f, 


5J 


ii; 


lil 


."»(l 


ll.r, 


o;j 


43 


22. .^ 


Mi 


41 


lit. (i 


.'ill 


:iii 


12 



a Partly tinni niH(i;iI n-i-<'r<lN, |iart istimati-- 

b (ii^uorally cHtiiualfii. as im ari uralr data an .n ailaMt- rnr aii\ ♦■iitiii- Statf, 

X the ;ibnvt' basis, tiie total animal ciil i>i' I lie (*(iuiilry (in million cubit', i'ct't) is about- as 



State. 



Tntal 
<iit 



1 II I III- fi'ie>*t3 Ix-Iongin^ to— 
s.. t . I ^''^rpora I Imlivid- 



Kiitiii- Knipict^ 

IMussi.'i . - .1 1, 054 

l!;i vurin 

\Viirtt(5nibiT^ 

Saxiinv — 

i:a<lin" 

Alsare-I.olTaint^ 

H.-.s«e 

Mi<kli'nlmr;i-S<-liweriii 



UIO 


710 


370 


830 


054 


:i:si 


178 


545 


354. 5 


153 


44.5 


1,57 


89.5 


3S 


25 


2(). 5 


tu.^ 


37. 5 


3.3 


26.5 


«5. il 


]fi.B 


47 


22.3 


ii5. :{ 


21.3 


33 


11 


34. H 


12.7 


12. 1 


10 


;iO 7 


15 


4.7 


U 



CONStrMrTlON OF WOOD MATEKIAI.S. 

'J'liii.s (k'niiaiiy lia.s :i stctidy and iiicrctisiiii,' supitly of over 1, '.>()() iiiillidii ciihic Icct of tiiiilxT 
\n'v year (alxmt diic tt'iith of our con si i in [it ion) from (lu^ Itinds wliicli in most otlitT coimfrU's rcMiiain 
hari-eii wastes. ( )f tlu-sc l,!t(tO,0(IO,(M)0 there are near (;(M»,()(M),()(Ht culiie feet of .saw timber and the 
like, tlie rest beina eord wood and mostiy firewood. From this il would aititear that Ciermatiy 
Itrothices about 40 eiiltic feet of wood per head of i)o|iuhitioti, aud that of this about lli cubic feet 
are saw timber, etc., as against .'>.")(> anil •")<> cubic feet for our (Mtnsumption. I>ut in spite of tlie 
great economy of wood this amount of homtvraised mtiteritil doi^s not satisfy tlie demand of the 
home markets, and Ciermauy with its l,!l(lO,(IOO,(ltl(l cubits feet is tothiy the second greatest importer 
of wood, jiarticularly of saw timber, in the world. 

The im])oit in this ease means the excess of import over export, siiu-e naturally in all countries 
an ex[ioit of soim^ timber takes jtlace. 

C'nisii mptlon uf woint [Htilliint cithir fei t). 



"•■''■ iiiH.oiiie. '"'I"""'-' Prudiuea' 



(iftnianv - 
f raiu-r . .. 



2,000 


1.010 


5!ll 


140 


1,17,-. 


•1.075 



1811 
451 
11)0 



42 

200 



hnpi.rteil 



IHO 
451 
100 



Per eent 
imported. 



U.laliv 
iinpnr- 
laiiee a; 
inijiurt 
er.H. 



24 40 

90 I 100 

33 I 22 



222 



FOKKf^TUY INVESTIGATIONS U. S. DEPARTMENT OF A( UtK ULTUKE. 



IVt head of populiitioii, and coiiipariiijj^ with the cousuiuptioii in the United States, this 
becomes: 

Von.-iiimptwH of ivoodptr capita of population {cnhicfeet). 



Country. 



Gertiiany 

Kiijil;iTnl 

Francti 

Uuited Statea. 





Pnidiu^rd 


Iiiipiirt 


Lou tim- 


Kelative 
wood cim- 




at home. 


L-xport. 


ber. 


tiumption 
I)er head. 










Per cent. 


44 


40.5 


:!.8 


15 


12.7 


15 


3.6 


11.5 


13 


4.3 


32 


■M 


'> 


8.3 


9 


350 


34'J.7 


0.3 


a5u 


100 



a This lel'iTti to lumber or sawed material alone. 

Since the coii.siiiuptioii by sawmills of lar^e timber, i)artifnl:irly coniferous material, is still 
iucreasijij;', it is clear that Germany has not nearly as much forest land as it needs, or else must 
still improve greatly its methods of production. At present L't! per cent of its saw timber, etc., 
is imi>orted. 

The following ligures give an idea of the extent and distribution of the German trade iu 
woods and wood manufactures: 



(lennanii's trade in wiiuil and wood maiiiifarfiircK, lS!):i. 



Tiiited States 

Kii.ssia 

Austria-Hungary. 

Sweden .'. . 

Fnmc-.- 



Einhmd 

Holland 

Norway 

lieliiioTn 

IM-nnnirk 

Humbnrg 

Switzerland 

East India 

Sjiam 

Argentina 

lira/.il 

Torto Kico and Cuba. 



Total . 



Imports 



a*2, 

;. 2f., 

ria 

(i5, 

1 

1 



el, 
./■I 

u 

h 



ilA, 000 
UOK, 000 

:i(i3, uuo 

222. 0011 
790, 0011 

:ii:). 000 

XL'2, 1100 
840, 000 

7:io, 000 

50, 000 
124, llOO 
2211, 000 
114,000 
302. 000 
359, 000 

68, 000 
352, 000 



60, 016, 000 



Kxiiorla. 



$1,504,000 
741. OOO 

1, 946, OOU 
305, 000 

3, 405, 000 
13.449,000 

2, 546, 000 
176, 000 

1,469,000 
067, 000 
1.551,000 
1, 822, 000 
174, 000 
354. 000 
129. 000 
384, 000 



30, 922, 000 



(iLiuuIier. 
;>Pine Io;,;s 



cOali, ete., loffa. 
d Sawed lumber. 



e Largely rattan. 
/Nearly" all eork. 



</ Largely quebracho. 
h Maho{;auy, etc. 



The prices paid by Germany have so far been very reasonable. Thus her im(>orted lumber 
cost in 1892 only lis..'!!) per thousand feet; firewood only ."fe(i.50 per cord; hue hevvn timber 
(mostly hard pine iu long pieces) .$30 per thousand feet, etc. 

With the enormous resources in European Russia and Sweden, part of whicdi are not even 
organized as yet, there is no apprehension of rapid advances in prices and no likelihood of 
scarcity of sujiply. 

FINANCIAL RESULTS OF FOREST MANAGEMENT. 

(Jonceming the tiiiancial results of forest management only the records of the State forests 
are accessible. It is clear that the income depends on the amount of timber cut and the prices 
obtained. If, therefore, the yearly cut has been increased, in some cases doubled, by good inan- 
agenieut since the beginning of this century, the income naturally is doubled. To this increase iu 
amount of salable material there was added a general advance iu prices, partly due to the 
dei>reciation of money iu general, but vastly increased by the improvements in transportation, for 
which large sums have been expended, especially during the last tifty years. 

The tinaucial results of the various Government forest administrations vary considerably, as 
is natural, since market conditions vary much. It is believed that all these administrations are 
less profitable than they might be, being managed with great conservatism, and less for greatest 
tinaucial result than for desirable ecfinomic results. 

The following table exhibits in a brief manner the results of -this kind of management, the 
figures referring to conditions in IS'JO or thereabout. The record for the city of Zurich is added 



FINANCIAL IIESUI/I'S OK GEK.MAN FOIIES'I'S. 



2'23 



to sliow liow an iiit(uisiv(^ly mauag»',(l small foivst i)r()|)eity uiuU'r tavoralih- coiKlitioiis of market 
compares with tlie more extiMisively maiiaseil larger forest areas: 

Fuirslii/ .iliilisl'm uf icilaiii lUrmaii furcst adiiuiii>'lr(iliiiii\, shoiiimj Hrirnijr fn.tt nf (itfniiin.slniUnii. i/ni-oi (tiid nrt imoine 

per lien-, JSOO. 



Prussia 

Haviuia 

M'urttfiiibcri; . 

Saxony 

liadeii 

City of Zurich. 



Foii-Ht 
area. 



T.ital ex- 



AcrPS. 

6,(11111,111111 I.S, 000, 0011 $14,000,0(10 



,300,000 
470, 000 
4 Hi. 000 

i:tb. 000 
•:. TOO 



;i, i.w, 0(jo 
i.o:'5, 000 

1,040, OOO 

404, (100 

14,000 



5, SKO, 000 
2. 260, OOO 
•>. T.'lo, 000 
1,000.000 
'.'0, 00(1 



Ni-I. 



KxprluUturoS ami revcnms prr ;l<Tf of forest, 
Kxptiulituits. 



■og 

4- o 



$0 


000 


j 

000 




7:i(i 


00(1 


1 


'j:i') 


(100 


I 


710 


.'lUO 




OK(i 


000 




12 


000 



$i.:i3 

1 . ;i7 

2. 17 
'J. .*'(1 
1..''.4 

li. 00 



4(1 
51 



c ^ 


d 


c - 


O 1 


























■5£ 






^ 


S-^ 


rt 


< § 


<« 


$0. 4K 


1 
fo. ;!o 


.04 


. ;{7 


..S7 


. 02 


. ti.'i 


.m 


.:i; 


.81! 


l.U 


2.10 



$0. M 
, 11 

. ll 
.15 
.16 













p 




o 










13 








o 




M 


'A 


.fid. 00 


$0. 06 


. 11 


1. Ul 


.;i:! 


2.C3 


.21 


4.11 


.12 


2. 00 


l.M 


4.40 



The latest ligures (1S07) show a considerable iuerease in all (lirectious, expeiulitmes, ^ross, 
and net income, over those iirevailiu;; ten years ago, and, as we will see further on in the diseussiun 
of the conditions in the single States, these increases have been steady tor a long i)eriod. 

The IbHowing ligmes represent the income and expense for State forests of the entire Enii»ire 
and for the princi[)al States as at present: 

Financial rei^nlts, /.v'v?. 
[MilUt.M .l.illars.l 



SI;iti^ fi)rusts. 



iii^miany a 

I'nissia 

i;:iva.ria 

Wurttt-nibtMj; 

SaxiPiiv 

liaai-n" 

A Isacu- Lorraiiio 

Ilesse 

AU-ckU-nburg'ScbwLTiu . 



■ I.„^^ 


Tc.lal 


Not 


'■"""•• 


uxpcllscs. 


n-vrime. 
2(1, 528 


:io. :i6l 


18. 8:i:i 


17.41.'-. 


0, 070 


.^. iifiti 


S Kill 


:i. .S.SI 


4.210 


:i, (110 


1,224 


1.705 


2. Htifi 


l,o:i2 


1 . K:i:i 


I,:i;i7 


OIK 


71'J 


1.522 


7.',2 


770 


8411 


40.". 


4:t5 


liOO 


3.".(; 


253 



If This ittiii is a trilir bflow fh.- truth. ;is tlio ^iiiall iiriini|>;ililits ;in- her.' 
(T Sl;itrs. 



«■(! Ir. liavf no hir;;i-r inrome than tin- avfra;:i' of tin. 



From this statement it apjiears that (ieimaiiy has a yearly j^ioss iiicoiiie of nearly •'$4(1,000,000 
from its State forests, i. e., from one-third of its total forest area alone, while the value of its forest 
prodiiets from the entire forest area (.■')."),()0(),(H>0 acres) may bo estimated to sum up the handsome 
total of over ><107,()0t),()()0, or round $.'! gross income for every acre under forest cover. 

The following table illustrates the results of forest mana.iiement iu the several States. I<'or 
I'.omparisou the (igiires represent the yearly income and outlay i)er acre of total forest area, so that 
for instance the gross income of .$3.47 per acre for (Jermany means that the German State forests 
yield each year about that sum for every acre of State forest, or •'!'.'}!>,.'500,U00 on the whole. 

Yiiirli/ iiicumc ami tj-pinsia per lurv uf furcsled ((rid. 




Kxi.cns.-H. 

As a |.rr 

in. (Hue. 



(icniiniiya 

I'liissia 

1 

Wiirlti-MiilKM' 

Savon 

llaili^n' 

Alsac LoiriiiiiL- 

llossf 

Mc(kh-uh((rii-Schu'L-riu 



a This fit;iiri- rcpri'sinits tho avt-.iagti t'or 00 j.cr wut ot' a 
font wero acci'ssihlo. 



.i3. 47 
2. lil'i 
3.71 
0. 50 
0. !10 
5. 82 
4.24 
4.05 



MOO 
l.:w 
1.78 
2. (i4 
2. 311 
2. 60 
2. 00 
2.37 
1.47 



48 
40. 5 
34 
46. 2 
49.4 
48 



Net 
ruMiiiif. 



$1.81 
1.28 
1.S3 
3.86 
4. 54 



3 


13 




12 


•) 


58 


1 


05 



Stall! forests, anil would l.i' liltl.' ilikn.uml if ilata for Ihr other 10 jier 



224 



FORESTRY INVE.STIGATIUNS U. S. l)EPAKTMi:NT OF AGKICLLTURE. 



From tbe.se fiymes it appeal's that tlie several goveruuients expend on an average about 
sl.OG per acre per year on their forest i)roperty, and that they obtain thereby a gross ineoine of 
.'}!.!.47 per aere and a net revenue of sSl.Sl, or 52 i)er eent of the gross income per acre per year. 
Considering the Ji^ 1.81 as the interest on the value of tlic forest lands, and using the .'5 per cent 
interest rate as (uistoniaiy for large investments, these figures show that by proper inanagemeut 
the German States keep their poorest lands at a. capital value of over AGO per acre; in other 
words, that the C.erman State forests pay A10,0()(),00() for labor and taxes, and in addition pay 
interest at .'! per cent on a capital of $(!0 per acre. A large part of this land if deforested would 
not support a. farmer and would rapidly degenerate into mountain pasture and heath, which at 
best could not be sold at over $."» per acre, and even then would prove more a detriment than 
advantage to the community. It also ai)pears from the above tigures that the revenue is largely 
in proportion to the expenses, that the forest wliich is best cared for also pays the best. The 
same conclusion is reached by a study of the past. In IS-fJO, when tiie total expenses per acre in 
the rrussian forests were only .">7 cents, the net income was only 4(1 cents; to-day it is .•JL.SS and 
the net income $1.2S, and the .same holds for other States. Thus Saxony expended SO cents 
an acre per year in tlie beginning of tliis century and received !•.-) cents net inctmie: to day she 
spends s2..j(! and receives $4.54, or nearly tivefold. That these advances are not merely the 
expression of higher prices for wood is clear from the fact that the average price of wood Ibr the 
Prnssian cut (;)(i(l,(M)(),(t()(» cubic feet) has advanced sincte IS.jO from >^3:27 per 100 cubic feet to only 
!{!4.40, or .''>7 per cent, while the net income rose from 4(i cents to *1.2S, or 176 per cent. 

Since so much has been argued as to the impossibilities and impracticability of enijiloying 
these better forestry methods elsewhcne, and especially since the idea of sowing or planting tbrests 
has at all times been ridiculed in the United States, it uuiy be of interest to note Just how Ge^many 
expends her money in the woods. 

The tbllowing ligures present the various large items as i)er cent of the gross income. Tiius 
the total expenses in the Prussian forest use up 50 i)er cent of the gross in(-ome, tlie logging alone 
14.8 i)er cent, etc. 

The cxi)euses represented tlit^ following luoportions of the total inconu' in per cent: 



StJitt^ forust of- 



I'nissi.a 

Uavari.'i 

WiirttembtT'^ '.. 

Saxony 

r.adeii 

Alsace Lorraine 

Hi-asf. 

Mcnklenbur^i Scliweriu 



Total ex ■ 
]ienses- 



4H 
■III.E 

:u 
411. ■- 
411. 4 
4K 
47 



Adiiiinia- I I'lautiug, 

trationaml Cnttiiigan<l' sowing, 
[iroti'ction I nioviu^i till: I (h'ainagt: 
(mostly timlior. .work, wood 

.salaries). roads, etc. 



•-•1 
•J4 
IL' 
12 
9.4 
17 
lil 
17 



/Vr cent. 
14. S 
211 
14.6 
14.. ') 
17.7 
l->. 2 
21 
17.5 



0.6 
8.6 
6.4 
II). 4 
8.4 
'J.7 
9.2 



Tlie aliove tigures are doubly interesting, since they show that in Saxony, the very State wliere 
the timber is usually cut clean and the land restocked entirely by jilanting it with nur.sery stock, 
the item of planting, etc., uses up the smallest per cent of the total income — ().4 per cent. 

l''rom this brief outline it will be ai)parent that forestry in its modern sense is not a new, 
untried experiment in (lermany; that the accurate oflicial records of several States for the last 
one hundred years prove conclusively that wherever a systematic, continuous etibrt has been made, 
as ill the case of all State forests, whether of large or small territories, the enterprise was successful ; 
that it proved of great advantage to the country, furnished a handsome revenue where otherwise 
no returns could be expected, led to the establishment of permanent woodworking industries, and 
thus gave op])ortunity tor labor and cai)ital to be active, not spasmodically, not speculative, but 
continuous and with assurance of success. This rule has, fortunately, not a single exceiition. To 
be sure, isolated tracts away from railroad or water, sand dunes, and rocUy promontories exist in 
every State, and the management of these poor forest areas costs all the triujt can bring and often 
more: but the wood is needed, the dune or waste is a nuisance, and the State has found it jjiotit- 
able to convert it into forest, even though the ilirect revenue falls short of the expense. 



c 



CEK.MAN I'OKEST MA.NAGEMliliT — I'KUSSIA. 225 

I'OUEST A1)"MINIST1;ATI0N. 

The care and a(;tive legislative consideration of tLe forest wealth dates l»ack fnlly three cen- 
tnries. The so called " Forstordnnngen" (forest ordinances) of t-lie sixteenth and seventeenth 
ceutnries laid the foundation for the present system, and in some States, lik(> Wurttemberg, were 
uever re|)ealed, but merely moditied to adapt them to modern views of politic'al ecronomy. The 
end of the seventeenth century brought much discussion into the subject of forest legislation, as 
in all other public alfairs, and even conservative (Jennaiiy was led beyond the point of e(iuilibriuni, 
and in most States tin? State supervision, ('specially of private forests, was ab;indone(l. This led 
to the division aiul parceling of forest properties, and with tlie diminutive holding canu', nusman- 
agemeut and to considerable extent tin' complete devastation. This condition never alfected any 
of the State forests nor the majority of cor(>oration forests, so that these properties continued on 
their way to imi)rovenient. The wretched condition ol' nnuiy of the private forests is deplored, 
exiiosed, discussed, but so far those States which gave the ])rivate forest free have been unable to 
do nunc than to teach by example and to encourage, both means entirely inetlective when, as is 
usually the case, the owner is too poor to handle a forest. What remains to be done is being done 
as fast as means and opportunity offer. The State buys these half wastes, restocks them at great 
expense, and thus public nu)uey i)ays for ])ublic folly. 

To provide for a suitable and ellicient forest service Germany has expendeil large sums in 
promoting forestry education. At nine sejjarate colleges men are ])r('pared for this work, and the 
forest manager ("Oberfoerster," '•Kevierforrster") in any of the State forests is a college bred 
man with a general education about equivalent and similar to that loading to a degree of bachelor 
of science in our better uni\ersities. The organization in all (ierman States is similai- — a cential 
ollice at th(^ seat of govt^rnment, manne<l by expcricm-eil foresters, acts as advisor to the govern- 
ment, shapes the forest policy of the State, introdiu-es all large nuMsuresof reform, etc., and acts 
as court of api)eal in important forest cases, in each luovince, if the State is large (If not, the 
central ollice acts), a provincial forest ofiice sees after the work of the province. This ottice 
cooperates with the forest managers in preparing jdans for every piece of forest land, in deter- 
mining the cut of the year, and it also examines the work as well as the records of every district, 
and acts as tribunal for the province in forest matters. l>ut the real nninagers of the forests are 
the "Oberfoerster"' or '• Uevierfoerster," each of wb(un has on an average about 10,000 acres of 
f(U-est land for which he acts as responsible director. He lives in the forest, keeps himself 
informed as to all details, i)lans tor every i)iece of ground (his idans must be approved by his 
superiors), and executes all plans. lie determines where and when to cut, to plant, to build roads, 
and it is he who sells the forest products, lu all cases he has a number of assistants and guards 
who act as jiolice, and at the same tinu", as foremen to the laborers, directing their work and 
keeping their time, or measuring their cut oi- work. Tiie district which the ( )l)erfberstcr numages 
forms the unit in all records and transactions. All forest ollicials of any responsibility are 
employed for life or good behavior, their reipiirements, duties and rights, rates of ]iay, iiension, 
etc., are all clearly set forth in the forest laws of every State. 

In the following pages the conditions ami results of forest management in the leading States 
are fully set forth, based upon the latest official data available. 

Forest Management of Lkaihng States. 

PKUSSIA. 

The Kingdom of Trussia, with its .■!0,000,000 people and an aica of nearly <»0,0(IO,000 acres of 
land, re]nesenting all natural <'onditions from the low coast plain to the precipitous nu)untain 
system, with its busy centers of nninufacture and commerce and its distant rural provinces, 
stands out to dayas the strongest example of the great benefits of scientific forestry. 

The forests of Prussia cover S,H)i;,."".0.") hectares (about :i(V;00,(tOO acres), or '2:\.'> ])er cent of the 
total area. This proportion of lorest varies for ditlerent parts of the Kingdom from Hi per cent to 
;>!) per cent: it is below the aveiage of 2'> per cent in seven pro\inces, of which only Schleswig- 
IIolst(^in falls below l(i per cent, and is above the avtnage in six ])rovnices, .sonu; of which, like 
Brandenburg, belong to the densely populated portions of the Kingdom. The area relations 
n.Doc. 181 ir> 



22('> FORESTRY INVliSTIGATlON.S II. S. DEl'ARTMEN'l' OF AGRICULTURE. 

have remained piaetieally coustaut for about thirty years, there beiug then as now in forest 
20,000,000 aeres; eultivated 42,000,000 aeres, or about twice as much cultivated laud as forest. 

Of the fon^st area, 8 per cent belongs to the crown, 30 to the state, 12.5 to villages or 
municipalities, 1 to Stiftungen (Fonds), 2.7 to corporatious, and 52.'J to private owners. This 
ownership relation has changed a trifle during the last twenty years, the state and municipal 
forests having gained a little over 1 per cent at the expense of the private and corporation forests. 

iSituated between latitude 49° to 55° N. and longitude 23-' to 40° E. and occupying portions of 
the extensive coast plain along llaltic and North seas, as well as covering parts of nine separate 
mountain chains, the forests of Prussia naturally display considerable variety. Of the total 
20,0110,000 acres, about half falls to the plain, one-fourth to the hilly, and one-fourth to the regular 
mountain districts. The climate is moderately cold; the mean or average temperature for summer 
IS about GO to 05'' F., varying but little for the diflereut parts of the Kingdom, and being ([uite 
uniform for all three summer mouths. Spring and fall, the hitter a trifle warmer and more even 
than the former, have a mean temperature of about 45'' F., while that of the winter months is 
generally near the freezing point, the coldest weather for any one place and month being rarely 
below 25° F. 

Prussia is a moderately humid country. The records from thirty to seventy years indicate an 
even distribution of precipitation, varying generally between 22 and 28 inches, reaching a height 
of over 32 inches, and only 3 out of about 10 stations. With regard to the manner of management, 
the kind of timl)er raised, and the financial results of the work, tiie State forests, for which ahme 
exact statistics exist, may serve as examples, though the results are somewhat better in these 
than in the Ibrests of municipalities and iirivate owners. 

The total area of State forest in 1893 was 2,404,757 hectares, or about (!,750,00O- acres, 'fhis 
total area has remained almost unchanged for over thirty years. During this time many large 
and small tracts have been sold or exchanged to round off the State holdings and to satisfy 
private rights, many of whicli had become extremely troublesome and proven a grtsat hindrance 
in the proper management of the woods. These sales and exchanges were fully balanced by 
purchases, especially of poor, unproductive private forests and heath lands, for which purpose 
of late the State apiiropriates annually the large sum of 1,000,000 marks ($250,000), the [tolicy of 
increasing the State holdings having been steadily pursued for more than fifty years. About two- 
thirds of the State forests are situated in the North German plain, though some occur in e\ery 
province of the Kingdom. 

Of these State forests 07 per cent are regular timber forest, mostly i)ine and spruce, where 
the tinal crop is intended to furnish saw timber, and every particular j)arcel is supposed to be 
stocked with trees of nearly the same age. Only one half of 1 per cent is managed as " i'liMiter- 
wald" with the method of selection wlnue trees of all sizes and age mingle together on the same 
parcel and the logging merely involves the selection of suitable sizes. One-half of 1 per cent is 
standard coppice, where the bulk of the trees, commonly hard woods, are cut off while still small, 
15 to 30 years old, while a small portion is left over to grow into larger sizes; and 1.7 i)er cent is 
managed as coppice, largely oak coppice for tanbark, where the trees (only the sprouting hard 
woods) are cut down every ten to twenty-five years, the wood being utilized chiclly as poles and 
fuel. Of the timber forests, G2 per cent is stocked with pine, almost entirely Scotch pine {Pin us 
sylvcstri.s), furnishing hard i)inc similar to our red or Norway pine, ItJ per cent is beech, 12 per cent 
spruce, and nearly per cent oak forest. Thus about 75 per cent of all Prussian State forests are 
coniferous woods and only about 25 per cent stocked with hard woods, principally oak and beech. 

In general the trees of the timber forests are cut at an age of about 100 years (a 100-year 
rotation). At present 13 per cent of the area is stocked with trees over 100 years old ; 13 per 
cent, 81 to 100 years old; 14 per cent, 01 to 80 years old; 18 per cent, 41 to CO years old; 19 per 
cent, 21 to 40 years old; 19 per cent, 1 to 20 years old, and about 4 jier cent are cut clean (recent 
fellings) to be reforested at once. 

SAXONY. 

If Prussia, may be regarded the best example of the success of rational forestry in a largo 
country, and Wurttemberg can be cited as proving the great value of a very conservative, almost 
paternal, atliliide of the State with regard to its forests, surely Saxouy deserves the credit of 
leading all other countries in the intensity of its forest mauagemeut. 



(iEUMAN FoliKST MAN'AGIOMENT SAXONV. 



227 



Tlic total area of tli(; State is ;J,700,000 aciL's, and its poimlatioii ;;,182,()()(t, and its total forest 
area about 1,020,000 acres, or 27 per eent. Of tliis I'orest area, I 73,.S.S'.) lieetares, or nearly i;JO,000 
aeres, e(inal to ahout -1.:; i)er eent of all forests of the eonntry, belong to the State. The aceiirate 
records for these State forests Inive been kept for more than eighty years, and fully illustrate the 
develoi)meut and firowlli of forestry in the Kingdom. The bulk of the forests are inountain forest; 
!)l i)er cent in eonifers, mostly spruce, and only pin- cent in bard woods, most of which is beech; 
while only about 1 per cent is nonproductive lock and water area. 

As early as 17(i4 the State of Saxony began the improvement of the then rather dilapidated 
forest jiroperties. The real systematic work of forest survey ami manayenuMit, however, did not 
bejiin until lleinrich Gotta ((iften culled the father of modern forestry) bcyan his noteworthy 
etforts in ISIl. Tliough the (iovernnient never appropriated special funds for the increase of its 
forest holdings, the money which accrued from the sales of other State lands, as well as roadways, 
building sites, etc., sufliced to increase the area during the past eighty years by fully 10 ]>er cent, 
the growth being a slow, steady one, fully illustrating the policy of the (iovernment. 

Thus the growth was: 1830 to 18Hi, r.,000 acres; 1810 to 1853, 5,000 acres; 185;! to 18(;;5, 5,000 
acres; 1SG3 to 1873, 17,200 acres; 1873 to 1883, 17,200 acres; 1883 to lSi)3, 12,500 acies. 

As in all (iernian States, nearly every piece of State forest was burdened by rights of jjrivate 
l)ersous ami corporations, for which Saxony has paid, almost entirely in (-ash, the handsome price 
of $1,300,000. 

During the last sixty years the area stocked with i-onifcrs has steadily grown from about 
310,000 to over 385,000 acres, and the area, of beech and other hard woods except oak has been 
l)roportionately dimiiuslied, the hard woods all told covering at present only about 14,000 acres, or 
a little over 3 per cent of the forest area. The condition of the forests, though, of course, very 
good at the start, if comi)ared to ordinary wild woods, has steadily improved since 1817, in spite 
of the fact that each decade a larger amount of wood was cut. 

The following ligures serve to illustrate this important fact ami at the same time show that 
there has not only been a steady increase in the total amount of wood standing and the amount 
cut, but that the larger sizes form today a much greater per cent than formerly: 



Years. 


amount of 
wood rut. 
ouch year 
(avorajio 
tor oarh 
Uueailc). 


I'oraoro of torestod arofi. 


Amount cut. 




Tolal. 


Wood ovor 

3 inches 
tliioli (oord 

wood and 
timhor). 


Timlior 

(not oord 

wood). 

i'itbic ftct. 
7 

10 
11 
H 

37 
47 
04 


Amount 
s(audin;i 
por.icreoii 
total uroa. 


1817-1820 

1 827- 1 .s:w 

18:!7-184ti 

1S47 IS.Vi 

1854 186;i 


2I.cub.rt. 
21, 4UI) 
21,800 
20. 400 
2:1, .'■.Oil 
26, 000 
:i 1,600 
36, 600 
:i7.400 


Cubiv/iul. 
' tiO 
CI 
.06 
64 
70 
82 
00 
90 


Cldiic f't-t'f. 
40 

;i6 

44 

48 
60 
66 
68 


Cubic J\;-t. 






2. 120 
2, 280 
2. 180 
2. 650 
2, 620 


18(i4-187.'i 


IS74 1883 


1884-18113 





Trom these ligures it ai)pears that the cut on the whole has increased from 21,000,000 cubic 
feet to 37,000,000, or by fully 57 i)er cent, and the cut i)er acre and year of total forest area from 00 
cubic feet to 00 cubic feet, or exactly 50 per cent. lAloreoNcr, of the IKt cubic feet i)er acre in 1803 
there were 08 cubic; feet, or 75 per cent, wood over 3 in(!hes (excluding stump wood), while from 1817 
to 182(; only 0(5 i)er cent was over 3-iiicli stutf. P>ut what indicates even more strongly the ellect 
of better mauagemeiit is the fact that more than half of the cut of 1803 was sold, not as cord wood, 
but as timber (.saw timber, etc.), while even as late as 1805 only a fourth could thus be utilized, 
though the manner of selectiou (inspection) has changed but little since that time. That with all 
this intense utilization of the forest the standing timber shttuld increase instead of becimiing 
exhau.sted is perhaps the strongest (^xamide of the success of scientitic forestry and one which in 
this country would scarcely be believed possible by nmst of the lumbermen and woodsmen. 

Practically, all State forests are tindier forests and the prevalent method of treatment has Ibr 
a long time been the '• kahlsdilag" method of cutting, where all trees are cut at the harvest and 
the bare area is at once planted with nursery stock. The expenses for cultural work all told. 



228 



FOKESTUY IXVESTRiATlUNS U. S. DEl'Aia'MENT OF AGEICULTUKE. 



iiicludiii},^ iiiaiuteuaiice of nurseries, sood and plant iiurchases, as well as plautluj;-, amount to oidy 
12 cents an acre per year, or 1.8 per cent of the gross income, while for the last twenty years more 
than t\vi(-e this sum has been expended for coustructit)n and iiniirovement of roads, the great 
value of whii'h arc nowhere more fully recognized than in bii.sy Saxony. 
The linaucial results are exhibited in the following table: 



Oeniral Jinanrhil i-esiiltx in the Slatr forests 0/ .S(i.ror!i/. 



Vrari^. 


Anniiiil 
(gruss). 


.•\iinnal 

rxpt'USf. 


Annual 
net in- 
come. 

$352, 000 

371,000 

419. 000 

588, 000 

925,0110 

1,42.'., 00(1 

1,749,000 

1,894,000 


Per ocrti a 


nil yoar ol total forest 
an-a. 


Income 
(gross). 


Expense. 


Net in. 
come. 


1817 18''rt 


$649, 000 

092,000 

761,1100 

970. 000 

I.IIO.S, 000 

1, 986. 000 

2. 024. 000 
2, 890, 000 


$297, 000 
321.000 
342, 000 
388, 000 
443. 000 
5ii3, [100 
875. 000 
990, 000 


$1,75 
1..S0 
2 02 

2. 51) 

3. 53 
i 91 
6.23 
6. CO 


$0. 80 
.86 
.90 
1.02 
1.14 
1. 39 
2.08 
2. 29 


$0. 95 
1.00 
1.12 
1.54 
2.39 
3.52 
4.15 
4.37 


1827-lH:iG 




lS5-t-lHC.;i 

18ti4 187:{ 


1874 1WN3 


1884-1893 



The extraordinary results indicated in the al)ove table can not entirely be credited to the 
increase of wood prices and tiie general depreciation of money during this century; they are 
primarily the monetary expression of the improvements indicated in the previous tables; they 
mean increased sales, and sales of older, larger, and better material. 

When it is considered that Saxony has taken iu about ^lOl^OOOjOOO during the last fifty years 
from a small area of rough lands (left waste in many countries, even in Eiiiope), a tract of laud 
half the size of a good county iu Wisconsin, the great advantage of a careful treatment of forest 
areas must become clear to everyone. (Jousiilering the net income as the interest of the value of 
the forest lands at the prevailing 3 per cent rate, the table .shows that scicintificcare lias increased 
the value of these ixior mountain lands from $100 to $150, whereas their deforestation would (juickly 
convert them into poor alpine iiastures which would bankrupt their owners at >*10 an acre. The 
table also shows clearly that it is not accident, not merely a general improvement of the country, 
but that it is careful, systematic work which lias led to these imiiiovements. When Saxony sjjent 
only 81 on each acre of forest land she received only «1..')4 net income; when she sjient $2..'5il, her 
net income was more than doubled, reaching during the ten years ending Ib'.lS 8^.37. 

The following figures illustrate the nature and relative importance of the expenses per acre 
as compared with the iucome, as well as the prices obtained for the material: 



iJecade eniliu^— 


Criee lier 

eilbie tool 

ot wood 

o\ei 3 

Ccnlt. 
4.2 
4.7 
5.0 
6 
7.4 
8.1 
9.4 
9.9 


Wood 
cut. 

CuMc/eet. 
00 
61 
56 
64 
70 
82 
90 
90 


G roas 
iucome. 


Total. 


For ad- 
minjstra. 
ticui and 

]iroUc- 
tion 


Felling 

find 
movili;^ 
tnubcr, 

etc. 


Planting 

and other 

<uifuial 

worli. 


Koa(l«. 


18*>G 


$1.75 
1.86 
2. 02 
2. 50 
3.53 
4.91 
6.23 
6.6B 


$0.80 
86 
90 
1 02 
!.14 
1.39 
2. 08 
2.29 


Cents. 
38 
40 
44 
47 
49 
54 
77 
93 


Cent.i. 
30 
31 
31 
37 
45 
62 
92 
95 


Cents. 
8 
8 
10 

11 

13 
10 
13 
14 


Cents. 

5 
4 
5 
6 
11 
24 
26 




1846 




1863 . 


1873 


1883 


1893 





From the above it ajipears that the jjiices of wood have doubled since 1817, but that during 
the last twenty-five years they have rt^mained practically constant. Part of this ailvance is due 
to the general advance of iirices, but part also to the improvement of the material sold. The 
advance in the expenditure for administration since 1S4(> is due both to the advance in wages and 
salaries generally (seen also m the advance of cutting cxiienses), but is also due to the greater 
competence of the administration. Saxony, unlike Michigan and other States of this Unoin, 
prefers to spend the money iu protecting its forest rather than saving the expense and losing the 
jn'operty. Of special interest is also the fact that even in this intensive management, where 
almost every acre is reforested by planting with nursery stock, the cultural ojierations, including 
drainage and kindred expenses have varied only within a few cents per acre, involving during 



GF.R:MAN FOIiEST MAXAGE.Mi:Nr — I'.AVARIA. 



22!) 



the Inst tliirty years <;eii('ral]y less tliaii L' per cent of tlic yross iiicoine. To many in tliis land of 
forest fires it may |icrliai>s be reniaikalile tliat: Miis t;cn('i;il enemy and its destructions have not 
been of suili(tient eonseciuenee to deserve eomi)ila(ion lor (liis -general statenienl. Tliese nioiindiin 
forests of s|)rn('e and pine are simply not allowed to burn u|). 

The manai^ement of the forests of Saxony is similar to those, of Prussia. While those of the 
State arc under eonservativo and most eltieient eare, those of jirivate persons and eorporations 
aie praetieally free; the only tiling the State authorities (h) is to yive .ii'ood examI)l(^, assist private 
individuals, etc., by furnishing- cheap |)lant. material fioni the forest nurseries and to pre[iare i)lans 
for the management of forests if such plans are asked and \r.ut\ for. 

r.AVAKIA. 

The kinjidom of I'.avaria has a total area of about IS.S million acres, or little more than halt 
that of the State of Wisconsin, sujiportiui; a population of about r(,,">S!l,(l(((t peojjle. It eomiirised 
al)out 1(», .■)()(), 0(1(1 ncres, or.")!) per cent, of fields and tjardens; 7."i(t.(tO(l acres, or I i)er cent, of ]iasture 
lands; (i,.'!ri((,(i()() acres, oi' ;'.l per cent, of forest; l,:2()(),()(t(t acres, or (! per cent, of unproductive 
land, largel.N' mounlains, roads, and water surfaces. 

On the whole, this relation of areas has not, changed matcaially in o\cr thirtyfive yeais, so 
that in IS'.i;! the total area of forest lands is t;iven at about (),l,'(H !,()()( I acres, or at. .'l").l per cent of 
the entire land surface. 

Of tliese (J,L'0(».(l(l(l acres there are: State fon'sts, 2,l(;(),0()(l acres, or .It.S per cent: corpoia- 
tion forests, 78(1,0(10 acres, or l'J.(> per cent; poud foicsts, 1 10,000 acres, or 1.7 jier cent : juivate 
forests, .■>,ir)0,000 acres, or .">0.!» pei- cent. 

The forest laws and forest organization resemble those of IJadeii and ^\'urttemb<>^J;■. The 
l)rivate forests ar(! under State supervision, dealing of forest lands recpiires a iierinit. the mis- 
management or devastation of a forest ])roperty is forbidden, and devastated forest areas are to 
\h\ reforested by the State and the expense charged to the forest. All ci>ri)oration and Fonds 
forests are under direct control of or are managed under control of the State foiest authorities, 
so that fully one-half the forest area of Jlavaria is under careful treatment. As with all (lerman 
States, I'.avaria constantly (Mideavors to incaease the State holdings, and deteriorated and other 
forest properties are bought uj) as oii])ortiuiity offers. During the tilty years emling 18'.t.f, the 
State purchased about 1 ll,(!00 acres, at a cost of •s.">,.J77,000, or about •'<.3S ])er acre. Besides this 
increase of territory, the State has, during t^his same period, expended about -■?.!, 800,000 in the 
])urchase of easements or servitinle, iii\'olving 10,71() separate cas(!s of pnvih-ges to timber and 
firewood. Neveitli(^less, ther(^ ai-(^ still uiany of these privileges or servitiules, which requires an 
animal outlay of over -s 100,000 and thus represent a capital value of over .'^10,000,000. 

The distribution of the forests over the kingdom is rather an even one. Six of the eight 
l)rovinces have over .'50 i)er cent, the lowest 1313 jier cent of forest area, while the highest .'?.S per 
cent. Of the entire forests area about 00 per cent is <!overed by timber forest, where the timber 
is cut usually at about 100 to 120 years, and only 9.1 pei' (tent as cop|)ice and standard coppice. 

Forty years ago the same was stocked as follows: 



Odpnico ' r. , ,■ 
Timbrr .nn,l ^'•^'-'•'"" 
fon-Hts. sl;,t,.lar.l , ,""''';''' 



St a to forests 

('en j)rir:ili(ni ri»r«'.-.lj* 

Pri\;ito tnre^ts 

Tnu- av<i:i;;t- for ilio whul 



Pi'r enil. Pfr < 



I'tr i-rnt. 



j;'1 


:;5 


3 


-.. 




78 5 


rj.7 


8 4 





The princii)al forest trees are the conifers, chiefly sjjruce. Of the total, about Ki.l.' per (-ent is 
spruce and fir. ;!0 ])er cent jiine, 0.7 per cent beech, 1 per cent oak (two-thirds oak-bark co|)picc), 
2.3 iier cent other hardwood tiuiber, (i..s jx'r (-ent other hard-wood coppice. 

Thus, conifers represent about 77 [wv cent, the hard woods 2.'> per cent. The conifers are 
primarily the trees of the mountains, the hard woods, beech iiarticnlarly, being most abundant in 



280 



FORESTRY INVESTKiATIONS TI. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULUURE. 



the valley of the Rhine, the Palatinate, and Lower Franconia, where the beech forests cover as 
high as SO i)er cent of the forest area. 

In 1800 the total cut for the l;in;;«lotn was liTH million cubic feet of stem wood, '■'>') million cubic 
feet of branch wood, 3(1 million cubic feet of stump wood, making a total of 340 milliou cubic feet, 
aiul was divided as follows: 



Slalo forests 

(/orponttioii t'orcsts 
I'rivate lurosts 



-r''"^;'«^'''^ 



:;9 
U 



Cuhic It. 
fiB 

47 



TutuI . 



SI 



For the State forests alone the cut in 1804 of wood over 3 inches, excluding branch and stump 
wood, was ri") cubic feet i)er acre, and iTicluded saw and other tim1)er, 5") million cubic feet; cord 
wood (exclusive of branches and stuHi])s), M million cubic feet. 

The financial results for the 2.1G milliou acres of Htato lorests were, in 1804: Total income, 
.*S,1 00,000, or $3.71 per acre; total expense, $3,881,000, or $1.78 per acre; net income, $4,210,000, 
or $1.93 per acre. 

Compared to otliei' small States of Germany, particularly Saxony and Wurttemberg, the net 
revenue per acre of forest is decidedly low; but it must not be forgotten that a. (tonsidcrable jtart 
of these State forests is situated in the high Alps, where the difficulties of removing the timber 
liave so far been very great, and the value of tiudjer conse(|uently very small. Thus, flue tinil)er 
trees, worth $.">0 to $100 on the markets of the lower Ifhiue, arc worth little over $1 apiece in these 
Alpine districts. 

As might l)e exiiected, the ])evmanent improvements of the forests, particularly the construc- 
tion of highways and roads, still require large sums every year. Thus, in 1894, Bavaria spent 
over 1,000,000 marks ($250,000) on road construction. 

The management of the forests is quite similar to that of the other German States. The 
llevierforstcr, corresiionding to the Prussian Oberforster, is the responsible manager of each 
district. Tlie districts are quite large; they include usually about .'>,000 acres of State forest, so 
that one IleviertVirster is usually t! to 10 miles from his neighbor. 

For all State and cori)oratioii forests, an area of a little over 3 nullion acres, there are 000 
lievierforster or managers, 1,589 guards and assistants, besides 175 accountants and 107 sui)erior 
oliicials. Tiui manager or HevieriVirster makes and executes the plans and keeps the records for 
the woods of his district. 

As in Wurttemberg, rational measures for the proper use and treatment of forcwts of Bavaria 
date back to the beginning of the seventeenth century. As early as KJK! a^ forest law was 
])assed whi(!h embodied all that seemed at that time desirable. This law was moditicd, some 
complications arising from the change of size and form of the kingdom, and also through the 
radical views pronuilgated during the second half of tlu! eighteenth centuiy. On the whole, 
however, Bavaria remained conservative, which in view of its large mountain forests must bo 
regarded as particularly fortunate. 

The establishment of the forest school at Munich took place about 1780, when a general 
reorganization occurred, utkI the functions of the forester changed from those of a hunter to those 
of a producer of timber. 

WURTTEMBERG. 

This little State, with an area of about 4,820,000 acres, or about oneseventli that of 
Wisconsin, and a population of little over 2,000,000 peo])le, ranks among the most conservative as 
well as the most successful among the commonwealths of Europe. In matters of forestry this 
State began proper measures as early as 1014, when laws were inaugurated for the proper 
treatment of forest properties, wliich remain fundamental to this day. These early laws, which 
mad(; the proper care of forests obligatory to all and forbade both forest devastation and clearing 
(the latter possible only on permit), were i>r()i)erly enforced and maintained even through the 



GKRMAN- l-OUI'.KT MANAGEMENT WUKTTE.Mr.El.'O "_'.'> I 

tronbl(>soii»o Miiios of tlic onil of llio cinlitcoiith century. Tlicy wcrii reiiiodolcd and ]»ci rcetcd to 
suit, inodcru conditions in IST") and ISTil tlic law of Mic former date, dealins' witli tln^ forests of 
public (iorporations, the, latter witli 8tate and jirivate lorests in ^'•eneral. 

The " forest iiolict^ law"' of 1S7!) reijuires: 

{a) Clearing;- of forest re(|uires a State permit; ill(><;al clearing' is ])unishe(l with a fine. 

(/*) A neglected iiiece of forest shall not hecnme waste land; the State antliority sees to its 
reforestation, with or without help of owner, the expenses to b(^ charged to the forest. 

((■) If the forester is convinced that a i)rivate owner cuts too much wood or otherwise 
mismanages liis forest, he is to warn tlie owner, and if this warning is not hci^ded the forest 
authority may ta,ke in hand and manage the particular tract. 

((/) Owners of small tracts of forest can combine into associations and can place their 
in-operties with municipal or even State forests for i)rot(^ction and management. In the latt(>r 
case tliey share the advantages of part of the municipal or conunuual forests which are managed 
by State autliorities. 

The law of 1^75 relating to the management and supervision of forests belonging to villages, 
towns, and other public corporati(nis places the forests under this category all under direct State 
supervision; there being a special division of corporation or muiiici[)al forests in connection with 
the State forest bureau. The law demands that all cor])oration forests l)e managed in atuiordan^e 
with the principles of a continued supply, the same as the State forests. The corjioration may 
employ its own foresters, but these must be approved by the forest bureau and are responsible for 
the proper ex(!cution of the plans of nianagemcTit. These plans are itrepared by the foresters and 
must be ai)proved by the State forest authorities. If ]>referred, the corporation may leave tlio 
management of its forests entirely to the State authoriti(^s. This is always done if a corporation 
neglects to lill the jjosition ol'its forester within a certain period alter it becomes va(!ant. Where 
the State forest authorities manage either corporation or private forest, the forest is charged with 
8 cents per acre ainl year for this administration. This fe(\ is generally less than it (losts, so that 
the State really has been making a sacritice so far in providing a satisfactory management for 
these forests. 

As in all other German States, nearly every piece of forest land was formei'ly encumbered 
with certain rights which entitled the holders to certain lixed amounts of firewood, timber, to 
pasture live stock, etc. The law of IStS obliges the holders of these rights to pait with them if 
the projjrietor i)ays the value of the rights, the manner of ascertaining the value being set forth 
in the law itself. Thus, lor the riglit of cutting his supply ol' lirewood in a forest the holder of 
the right is paid a sum which if phuuMl at I per cent interest will purchase as much wood as the 
holder of the right used per year, the average of twelve seasons being tlu^ criterion. Of the 
dil'ferent rights or i)rivileges, those conci^rning pasturage and the cutting of hay in the forcvsts 
are ])ra(;tically settled, and th(^ State jiaid between IST.'! and ISSO about 1.', II. ").(•( 10 marks, or 
$() 1 1,000, tor these rights. For ]n-ivileges of (uitting wood and timber the State has expended 
large sums. I'lven ])rior to 1818, betwc^en 18U."> and 18.50, forest land valueil in the aggregate at 
about 8.!.0it(t,(l0i), anil between 1850 and ISSO over .'j!.-.0(l,0()(» more have been paid out to rid the 
woods of tlH\se pestiferous rights, and yet as late as isTii these rights were worth >«;>li,000 per 
year, or a capital (at 4 per cent interest) of .ssod.doo. 

In matters of taxation all forests are assessed according to the net revenue which they 
])roduce. Of the total area of the land, about tii per cent is ])low laiul, 18 per cent meadows and 
pastures, ,'Jl per cent forest, ."5 per cent gardens and viueyanls, and 2 per cent roads. In its 
distribution over the State the forest forms I'T per cent of the area of tin; Nekar Kreis, .'50 per 
cent of the area of the Schwar/.wald Kreis, ,'51 per cent of the area of the Jaxt Kreis, and '2~> per 
(;ent of the area of the Donan Kreis. 

Of the total of about 1,170,000 acres of forest. 480,000, or .'II' i)er cuMit, belong to the. State; 
170,000, or .^2 per cent, to coriiorations, and r».'50,000, or .'$(» per cent, to individuals. 

Of the corporation forests, nearly .'i(i(),(IOO acres are mainiged by State foresters: of the i)rivate 
forests, 2(M(,(i(>0 acres are held by the nobility, including the royal family. 

Accurate statistics have been prepared so far only for the State forests and of late also I'or the 
cori)oration forest, so that a more detaileil description of these classes must serve as illustration 
for the whole. 



232 



FORESTRY INVESTIGATIONS U. S. DEPARTMENT OP AGRICULTURE. 



Tlie State forests of 4SO.OnO acres occupy parts of all four provinces of tlie eomitry. About 
92 per cent lie between !KK) antl li,4()0 feet altitude; 42 per cent are stocked on level ground, 2!1 per 
cent on gentle slopes, and about the same amount on steep declines. Over 40 per cent of these 
foiests are situated on sandy soils, and tlie rest are largely on the poor limestone soils of the Jura, 
and only a small part on the drift formation slcirting the north side of the Alps. 

Of the State forest area there is covered by a pine growth of s])ruce, 28 per cent; beech, 20 
percent; tir, per cent: pine, 7 per cent; mixed growth of conifers, 14 ](er cent; conifers and 
hardwoods, per cent; mixed liard woods with oak, 7 per cent; mixed haidwoods without oak, 2 
per cent. Tlius about 00 per cent is (-oniferous growth and only .'!0 per cent hardwoods, with about 
!) per cent mixed timber. 

Fully 07 per cent of the State forests are managed by the timber Ibrest system. The rotation is 
for timber forest, 100 years for 74 i)er cent of the area; SO years for 24 per cent of the area, and 
120 years for 2 per cent of the area. 

At the present (1.S!I4) the areas containing timber over 100 years old cover 11 per cent of the 
area: 81 to 100 years old cover 15 per cent of the area: Gl to 80 years old, 15 per cent; 41 to 00 
years old, 17 per cent; 21 to 40 years old, 19 per cent; I to 20 years old, 2.'! per cent: so that a 
fairly regular distribution for a lOOyefir rotation exists. 

These timber forests yield about 50 ' cubic feet per acre of timber from the main cut or haivcst 
and 11 cubic feet per aci-e from thinnings, making in all 07 cubic feet i)er acre and year for the entire 
area. The 3 per cent managetl in coppices and standard coijpice cut only about 14 cubic feet per 
acre and year. 

The total cut for 1894 was. for wood over .? inches thick : Oak, 1,200,000 cubic feet, or .3.9 per 
cent; beech and some other hard woods, 7,900,000 cubic feet, or 20 per c^ent; conifers, 21,500,000 
cubic feet, or 70 per cent. 

This cut was composed of — 

A. — Timher ijrnfrallii orer (i iiiclies at (lie lop end. 





Amounl. 


1 o.ik . 


Cubic /(■/(. 
Still, 000 




421), lion 




13. .soil. 000 


Total 


14, 7Sll, OOU 



:i. « 

2 K 
94 



B. — Poles -i-G inches, :T feet from butt end. 





Amount. 


IVr cent. 


Oak 


Oxtbic feet. 
1,500 
6,400 

r>8r>, 000 


0.2 
99 


Ri'i'cli ami otlier Iianl woods 


Xotal 


602, 900 


100 





C. — C'ordwood. 



Onk 

lieefh anil other li;ir(l woods 
Conil'ers 



For 
wooden iFor drowood. 
ware. 



Cvhirfeet: Ctihir frft. 

46, (ioO 5110' 000 

78, 000 7, 400, 000 

295, 000 0, 450, OOO 



The above figures, esjiecially tiiose for tlie yield in saw and other timber, clearly point out the 
great advantage of the conifers over the liard woods. The same is also clearly illustrated by 
the fact that the material sold as lirewood forms only 40 per cent in conifers, but 91 per cent in 



' This means that if the tiinl>or is 100 years olil, as most of it is, earh acuo of forest cuts .5,(100 cnl)ic feet of wood 
at time of harvest. 



GERMAN roKEST MAWllEMENT WrUTTEMDEKG, 



2;',3 



boocli ,111(1 other hard woods, h'aviiiji out the. oak, Mori>ov(T, (he yiekls liavc been much .urcatci 
lor coiiirer.s than beech. 

Tims the yield lor iiiateiial over ;'. inches thick in tiic hard woods was only •">! enliic feet per 
acre and conilers 71 ciibie I'eet per acre, whih' tiie averafte value ot the I wo is about as .". lor beech 
and other hard woods, leaviii;;- out oak, to 8 lor couU'erous wood, so that tlie yield in money per 
acire foi- the two was more nearly 2.1 times as jireat for conifers as for hard woods. 

Tile iiriecs obtained for wood, jjenerally delivered at the main road,s, was: Timber, oak (white 
oak), 13."> cents per ciibie foot; conifers, 11.7 cents iier cubic loot. Cord wood, beech, 4.'.» cents per 
cubic foot, or .$().;!0 per cord; conifers, ;>.() cents jier cubic foot, or *4.(i(> per cord. 

Tiie money results were for 1S!)4 as follows: 

$rt, Ol'.t, (Hid, (.1- 1(1(1 per cent. 



(ir(is,s income. 
Total cx])ensc 
Net inconio . . 



1,L'LM, (1(1(1, oi- 1(1 p(!i- cent 
I,7!I5, OtiO, (11- (111 pel' eout 



per acre of forest area 



(Jross iiiconie . 
Expenses.... 
Net iiieoiiK! ... 



$3. 2i) 

2. r.i 
:t.(;:t 



this latter fonniug 5!) per cent of the gross revenue. 
Amonii' the expenses w(>re coiispieuous: 

Fellinj;-.)!- tiiiil>cr .t:!;!", 000 

Adniiiiistratidn and pniteetioii 3.iil, 000 

Roads, new, and lepair !(!:>, 000 

Taxes l<«-0'» 

riantins, sowing, etc !'l.'l™' 

The following- tioiires illustrate tlu^ iirogress of the last ei.uhty years, and at the .same time 
indicate how steadily this small area of otiierwise almost valueless laud has been made to furnish 
an ample supiily of timber and a liandsoiiie revenue: 

Hcxulls of forest mnnagemeiit in Ihi- SInlcfnirfit.t of U'lnilrmhrnj. 



Year. 


Koroat 
arou. 


Wood over 

tliick cut 
v.icU ye.ir. 

Ucuhirfret. 


Price per 
eiiliieliiot, 

('cuts. 


I'er nCTTU 

Net 

incointv 

$0. :io 

.42 

l(i4 

.K5 

1. 78 

l.llli 
1.11 

1.42 
;i. 22 
:i, 54 

2. (12 
4.21 
2. (10 
2. 90 
3.:i:i 
:). ii!! 


(1(1 .\erir.o 

Cut wood 
ever 3 
inches. 




M acres. 


Ctihicfeet. 




472 










1,5, 20(1 
17,2(10 
17,70(1 
25, 000 
25, 411(1 
2:i, Slid 
20, 00(1 
2H, 40(1 
25, :!(K1 
2(1 OOll 
2H. SIIO 
2.^, 700 
20, 400 

:i(i. 200 
;io. 0(10 




:« 




4(ia 
445 
447 

4'52 
4,55 
457 
4fili 
405 
407 
471 
474 
47i; 
4,S(1 




:i7 






;i'.i 






55 






55 






52 


]^Y> 


4.:_i 
7. 5 
0.7 
7.5 
10.7 
K. U 
8.1 
H.7 
9. :i 


58 


1H611 


01 




54 


1870 


57 




(H 




Oil 


]H85 


fil 




r.3 




6:i 







I) Kcfcra ti> onlire forest area— swamp, water, surlaccs, aud all. 

.Most of the logging is done by the cubic foot or cord, and tln^ jirices are about (10 to 05 cents 
per 100 cubic feet of cotiifeious and Sd cents per lt»(t for hardwood timber, while cord wood is 
generally worked up for about $1 \h'v cord, iuchidiiig piling at roadway. All cut over land is 
at once reforested. During 1S!»4, 27;") acres were thus iTtroveied by seeding and about (i,(lt)l) acres 
by ])lanting, the latter being thus generally the rule, especially in the coniferous districts. The 
total expenses of cultural work were .■<8S,()()(t, or less than .5 per cent of the gross income. 

The thinnings of tlie dense sa|)ling timber involved during the year about L'o.doo acres and 

furnished aliout 21(1 cubic feet of wood per acre. Most of (his material in (he liard-w I district 

has to be cut into inferior lirewood, but tlie siuuee, (ir, and pine can usually be sold as poles and 
pulp stnlf, etc. 



234 



FOKESTRY INVESTIGATIONS U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 



Tlioiig'li largely stocked on sandy soils and composed of pine and other conifers, tliere are no 
forest fires re|)orted for the year. Tlie administration of forests is in the hands of "Ilevierfoerster," 
corresponding to the Prnssian "Obcrfoerstcr," who prepare the plans and execnte them, being- 
assisted by a body of subalterns. Tiie district of a Uevierfoerster covers about 1(),()()0 a(ues of 
forest, while the range or "hut" of the forest guard is generally about one-tenth of this. These 
guards also serve as foi-emen in all (iultural and felling operations, but the Uevierfoerster is 
su))poscd to keej) fully informed on all details and preserve accurate record. I'>esides their duties 
as State forest oflicers, it is e\pect(>(l that these men also keep themselves informed as to the 
condition of private and other forests. 

r.ADEN. 

In this intensively cultivated little State, with a total area of only about 8,720,000 acres, 
supporting a populat ion ol' 1, (>.")(>, 000, the forests occujjy over .'i7 i)er cent of the entire land surface. 
The forest area lias increaseil between 1880 and 1805 by over r)0,000 acres, lieing in the latter 
year 550,891 hectares, or about l,.">(iO,000 acres. These forests were owned as follows: 





Owner. 


1895. 


1880. 


Stntd .. , 


.1 rrt'x. 

'2'M. Olio 
fCi), 000 
47, oiin 

147.1)00 

:;io, 000 


Acres. 
2:i'J, 000 
(510,000 
,':3, 000 

147,000 
'28,T.O0O 


Vilbi^f.-A :imi tnwns. 
OtlitT rorjinr.atioiis . 
I'rivfLlt' ptTsonN: 
^■„l,iIitv 

















The forest jiolicy ol' r.adeu has been conservative and there is no »St;ite in Oermany where the 
general comlitions of tlu^ forests are better. Since all municipal and coijioration forests are under 
direct State contiol, being mnnaged by the State forest authorities, about !1 1 0,000 acics, or over 
OO per cent of all forests, enjoy a (lareful, conservative treatment, which insures to them the largest 
possible return in wood and money. Hut even the private forests are under the supervision of 
the State authorities, ami though the i)rivate owner may use his forest very much as he pleases he 
can in no way devastate or seriously injure it. Olearing requires a. i)ermit, also a comjilete clear- 
ing cut, which latter is permitted only if the owner guaraute(^s the r(>for(vstation of the denuded 
area within a given time. Bare and neglected spots in forests must be restocked, and failure of 
|)rivate owners to comply with the forest rules and laws leads to temjiornry management of the 
forest by the State authorities, such managemcTit never to continue less than ten years. Of the 
State forests ther(^ are about 03 per cent timber forest with a rotation of eighty to one hundred 
and twenty years and only 7 iier cent coppice and standard coppice intended to jiroduce tanliark 
and tirewood. * >f th(^ corjioration forests about 8.'! jxa' cent are tind)Ci- forest, so that of all the 
forests Tinder State management about- 85 per cent are timber forest managed on long lotations 
and furnishing large returns. 

Of the State forests, L'l jier cent are hardwoods, with little or no conifers; '■>() per cent are 
mixed forests, hardwoods, and conifers in about ecjnal ]iarts; 10 i)er c.o.ut are coniferous forests, 
the bulk being stocked with s])rucc and lir, while only about 1 i)er cent of the total is stocked with 
pine alone. 

h'ull and accurate statistics existing only for the State forests, and, as far as the annual cut 
is concerned, for cori)oiation forests, the following figures apply only to about 00 per cent of the 
forests of the country. 

The cut for 1801 was in — 



A. Fnini timlicr forests: 

Mam (TOji 

'I'll ill Mill ^a 

Stiiiiilis 

r.- Frniii (-oiiiiK-i^ and slanilanl crtjipi 

Main rrop 

'riiiiililii;is 

Slumps 



S(al 


(' r.. 


rests. 
ferl. 


CtiMc 


n 


101) 


OOll 


4 


fillO 


(IIK) 




\M 


ODD 




-m 


(100 




;m 


OIK) 










ii; 


5(i0 


000 



(Corporation 
IVocsts. 



Ciiliir.frrt. 

'23, 100,0(111 

0, 800, 000 

aLlO, Olio 

7, 60O, 000 
120, 00(1 
50, 000 

47,000,0110 



OF.IOIAN FOKEST MANAGEMENT — BADEN. 



2.",;-) 



This same cut per acre of total forest area is — 

TimbiT fon^st: (!ul>ii- fV-.t. 

State ■^ ' 

Corpora tidii "' 

(!o]>J>i(•(^ mill staniliinl coiijiicd: 

Slato ''^ 

Cor|i()iation •''' 

This cnoniious yiehl of nearly 04 million ciiljie leet of wood lladeii has obtained from this 
small area for many years without in (he least decreasinj;- the amonnt- of standing- timber or wood 
capital. In the State forest the cut per acre since 1SG7 has never been less than ~>~ cubic feet per 
year, or since ISS.") has never fallen below 71 cubic feet, while twice since ISTO it has been over 85 
cubi(! feet i)er acre and year. 

Of the total of nearly Gt million euliic feet, 10,200,000 cubic feet are timlx^r and other wood 
not sold as lire or cord wood, and L'9,100,000 cubic feet are cord wood over :'> iiu-lies. 

The Ibrests of r>aden are .generally well located, and the State has long; reali/.ed the great 
importance of jiood highways, so that the lU'ic^es for timl)er are generally good and tiu' income 
from the woods correspondingly high. 

The following prices in the woods were obtained in 1S!)4: 

I'Vr roinid thiilK'r Ioii<; lengtlis and saw Iop;s ([ici- ciibic. foot) : 

0„,k - *"■ "' to*il.:'!" 

iie<^cli • '•• 

Asli and iiiaplo • -' 

ISinh -OS 

Al.1,-1- -23 

Otiii r ha nl woods • "' 

(/'onifiTs, li)"S stoiiis "" '" ■ ''^ 

Coiiil.Ts, sa.w lo>;s " '" ■ '• 

CoMifcis, railway lies • '*^' 

For cord wihkI ( per cord ) : 

Ij,,,,,.], C. no 1o S. 10 

O-il; 5. SO to 10. SO 

Otlicr hardwoods C. oO to 7. SO 

ConilVrs ■!• OO to J. SO 

Tlic financial results in the Slate forests were as follows: 

For l.h(^ year 1S'J4— 

Total iiicoiiio 

Total cNpciisos 

Not incoiiic. 

Or per acre of forc^st slocked area — 

Gross iiicoiiie $:>.X2. or 100 per cent 

Expenses -•''■!'. or lli. 2 per cent 

Net inc(Mno "■■!:!. or 5:!. 8 percent 

Flow steadily this handsome revenue has been received may be inferred from the fact that 
during the tweiityeight years ending IS'.ll the gross income has ww.r been beh)w i?4.L'l i)er acre; 
that for thirteen out oi' tiie twenty-eight years it varied between ^l.l'l and *.'); that twelve years 
it was between 8."i and •*(!, and three years almve *•'> per acre. 

The ibllowiug ligiires show this relation for the jieriod LSSl to 1894: 

Production and cost jicr acre of forested area. 



$i,r>:!7, 000 

CilS. 000 
710.000 



Yn.ir. 


Cut. 


Annual 
iuroruo 
(fjross). 


Annual 
cxpeuse. 


Annual 

net 
inconio. 


Tile ox- 

lienso !.>+ 

of the 

Incmiie— 


ISSl 

1H82 


(hihicfcH. 

5n 
Ci 

67 
C." 
71 
71 

8r> 

711 

an 

71 
73 


if 1.08 
4.41 

4. fO 
4.S7 
.1.15 
5.2:1 

.1. :i:! 
.1. 10 
:,. 48 
n, 8,1 

5. n.'i 
r. 7:! 

11, 07 

.1. S2 


<;3. 13 
'J. 17 
•J. '.'I 
2. ::i' 
2. 34 
2.47 
2. fill 
2 ;'0 
2. :.!> 
2 .fill 

2. r.8 

2. (15 
2. fi4 
2. fill 


$1.94 
2. 24 

2 8(1 
2. 7fi 
2. 7:1 

2. fi.') 
2.88 
3.2r. 

3. IIR 
:i. 08 
3.42 
3.13 


7'(T cent. 

49 
47 
47 

i:< 
47 
49 
49 
47 

41 
4r. 
41; 
43 
4fi 


ISKt 

!*<«.■> 

1HS6 

lgS7 










1832 

\m! 

1894 



236 FORESTRY INVESTIGATIONS U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 

Considering the fact that these forests, in tlie aggregate only abont as large as ten townshijts, 
are scattered over considerable area, and thus their protection and management is rendered much 
more costly tlian if in more comjtact foriii, these results are certainly most remarkable. 

Of the exi)enses, those of si)ecial interest are: 

Lnssinn- (oouerally) $221,000 

Admiiiistratiou i:!2, 000 

I'roteotioii 51,000 

Koatis, iK^w and repair '''?. f'^O 

Sowing, planting, cf(- -l-- 000 

As stated before, wherever the forest is cut, reforestation is at once begun. As in other 
States, part of this is carried on by the process of natural regeneration, where the old trees are 
never entirely removed until they have been made to seed the ground, but part is also done by 
artilicial sowing ami planting. In 1S!H about 125 acres were seeded anew; (15 acres were seeded 
to correct failures of former years; 7G0 acres were planted for the lirst time, and about 850 acres 
of former failures were corrected. 

Tiie work of seeding costs sll.05 per acre, the planting All.l.'! per acre, which shows that it 
is not by a penny-wise and pound loolish system of retrenchment that the most extraordinary 
results of the Baden forest management are attained. 

ALSACE AND LORRAINE. 



These two small provinces, formerly under French rule, have an area of about .1,000,000 acres 
and a population of about 1,. 500,000, and are uiuler the Imi)erial (ioverument. The existiug forest 
laws of these provinces were left in force on their transfer to (Jernmny, so that now, as in former 
times, the French "code forestier" of 1S37 and some subse(|uent dates decide in all affairs 
concerning the forests. The laws in the main are like those of r.adcn; they restrict the right 
of the private owner to a proper use of the forest and forbid all devastation; any clearing requires 
a .State jjermit, .and with regard to protection against lire, insects, etc., they are subject to the 
ordinary forest police regulations. As in Iladon, the forests of cori)orations are managed by State 
authorities, so that a wellplaiined forestry system applies to all forests except tho.se of ju-ivate 
owners, anil even these are under rigid supervisiim and partial contnd. 

The total area, covered by forest is 444,160 hectares, or about 1,100,000 acres, forming about 
.30 per cent of the entire land surface. Of this forest area there belong to the State 340,000 
acres, or 31 percent; villages and town.s, 400,000 acres, cu- 45 ])er cent; private owners, 220,000 
acres, or 20 per cent. Besides these there are about 4(i,000 acres of laud behui.uing Jointly to the 
State and villages and 0,000 acres belonging to corporations other than municipalities. 

Since all forests, except those of private owners, are under the nuimigement of the State 
fin-est autlKuities, fully SO per cent of the forests of these provinces are in most excellent condition. 
Though the exact proi)ortion has not been ascertained, it may bo said that about CO ])er cent of 
the forests are hardwoods, largely beech and oak, and only 40 per cent conifers. 

The total cut for 1801 was— 

Cubic foet. 

For State forests 21, 100,000 

For (.-orporation 3S, 000. 000 

Tot.al 5t, 100,000 

of which about 17,500,000 cubic feet was nutzholz, or timber not sold as cord wood or firewood. 
Of the 21,000,000 cubic feet of wood cut in the State forests there were in 1891: 



Kind of wdikI. 


Tiiiilior 
(iiiitzliolz). 


CcM-(] .and 

ntiuir 
lirt'wood. 


Totfil nC 
wood. 


Per crnt 

of total 

cut. 


(Ink 


Cubic fert. 

I, Olio. 0(10 

SOO 000 

.""i, rioo, 000 


Cvljir- feet. 
2, 1011,000 
8. :iOO. UOO 
2. 700, 000 


Cubic fcrl. 
:\. 7011, 000 
9, 100,000 
8, 200, 000 


18 
4:i 
30 


Jii'orli wil li otluT litIl(^ li.inlwouds 







(iKKMAN FIMJEST .MANAtJEME.NT ALSACK-LUKKAINE. 257 

The average price per cubic loot was: 

I'or timlicr or worU wiiod — Cinis. 

Dak 17 

Ht;irli 11 

Colli fors ^. 5 

For lirenood — 

Oak r,. 5 

I '.ecch ti. 7 

Couifers I . L' 

Oil the whole tiie 8tate received 7."-! cents per cubic loot lor all its tiiiil»er and firewood. 
Among' the iinproNeiuents made duriiii; the year the items of roadmaldni;- ami i-elorestation are 
most conspicuous. 

In the State forests ahme about 1,500 acres were seeded, i;'e"e'i>l',V at a cost of ^tl to *.'5 per 
acre, the lowest beinj;' <iO cents; whil(! in lew cases the cost exceeded ■'ii4 iier acre. About.!, 200 
acres were planted, 1,1,'SO acres for the lirst time, the icst bcini;;' corrections ol' former failures, 
rianting largely with hardwoods cost on an average about •'<•"). oO jier acre. Iloadmaicin}' is 
vigorously pursued, as much of the land is (|uit<' rough, and well jilanned. permanent, macadamized 
roads have pro\cn to be among the best investments. In some of the districts forest railways 
have also been constructed. 

The tinal results during 1801 were as follows: 

huoiiie from wood $1. 'I'J'.l, 00(1 

()tU<T iirodiicis I'L', 000 

t'haso 1:^,000 

Total 1, 500, 000 

Of this $51,000 is llgured for wood, which was given to persons holding ser\itude rights. 
The exi>enses were: 

Iviiiuiiiif; cxppiisrs — 

Coiitial fori^st, liurcan $21 i, 000 

OliiM-lbersteis >J1, 000 

Guards UG. 001) 

Lousing I'ln, 000 

Ho:idiiiakiiif,' 47,000 

Planting, Bowing, drainage,, etc 47, 000 

( ithiT rnnniiif; expenses V2X, 000 

I'ormanent expenses liO, 000 

Total expenses I't'J, 000 

Keal gross iix'onie 1, 522, 000 

Net iueonio 770. 000 

The following figures present the course ol these relations for the decade ending ISDl: 

Financial resiitls far thv Slali forcsln in Alaace-Lorraiiie. 







Cut piM- acre uiiil 
yi':ir. 


P.r a 


■re 1.1' Icil 


llan:,. 


I'D. ,- ol 


\\-m: 


cimie. 


uvor;i 1 Total, 
iiiclic's. 


(IroMs in- 
conn-. 


pt'iise.-*. 


Net in- 
edllic. 

i 


lllllio 
tool. 






Cnhicfn-I. CiiliU- let. 






1 


Cenlx. 


ISSJ 


$1.:::17. iHio 


■4:1 :..'•. 


$:i. ;■' 


.f 2. ■Jll 


.■fl..'-..'-. 


(1, 1 


1 S.S3 






:!. 8fi 


•J, 114 


l.Sl 




1.SS4 


1 . 4-J'.). DUO 


4:1 111 


4.ii:i 


2.114 


1 1. !I7 


(i. 2 




l.:!iii,iiiio 

1,-.',S4. OUII 


4;. ' .')9 

4r. ;,ii 


:! (i7 
;!. 1)2 


2. 1)1 


1 l.lil 
1. f)'.) 


.'). « 


I.SS(i 


1HS7 


l.Stis. 0(m 

1. ICt.'j, IKK) 

I.:j7l.uiKi 


in tii 
a:, ' :>i 
41; .'.8 


3 Ii7 

:;. 74 
:i.K4 


2. IHi 
l.'.l.s 
2 OS 


I..'i9 
1. 74 

' 1.74 




1 sss 


(> 11 


18S1I 


li. 2 


Lsill) 


l,47T.UOO 


4'.) 1 la 


4. 1:; 


2. oli 


2- 04 


C. 5 


18U1 


1 , 5'JJ. 1X10 


4ii ;u 


4.-.;4 


2. m 


2. 12 


^■'1 



238 FOllESTEY INVESTIGATIONS U. S. DEPARTMENT (»F AGKICULTUKE. 

The iiel iiicitiiu!, in spite of large yields in wood material and a fairly good market, is com- 
paratively small, though slightly improviug. In 188t!, wheu tliis income was still lower, a special 
investigatiiiii was undertaken, to set forth the reasons of this small net revenue and to suggest 
improvement. All oberfoersters of note contributed their opinions, and on the whole good results 
seem to have come from their suggestions for im()rovement. The chief trouble evidently lies iu 
the great proportiou of hardwoods, which leads to a large production of lirewood and a small 
proportion of tiud)er or work wood. Thus 0(! per cent of all oak, 91 per cent of all beech, and 83 
])er cent of all other hardwoods had to be sold as cord and tire wood, bringing generally about 5 
cents i)er cubic foot solid, or about Ar> per cord, wliile for the coniferous woods only .'i(> per cent 
has to be sacrificed as cord wood, the rest being sold as tiudjer for just twice the amount obtained 
lor firewood. 

This condition of alfairs is materially aggravated by the general use of coal as fuel and the 
rejection of beech as tie tind)('r on railways, etc. This condition of affairs in Alsace-Lorraine is of 
great interest in considering the forest conditions of the United States. It shows evidently that 
it is the coniferous timbers which iriust be looked to as the important ones, and that even large 
supplies of hardwoods can not be exi)ected to reidace such stai)les as white pine or spruce. 

Methods of (Iekman P(ii;est JIanagement. 

'J'he following brief description of the methods of German forest management, by wiiich the 
results described have been attained, was originally prepared in connection with an exhibit at the 
World's Fair, which the chief of the Division of Forestry collected and installed upon the invita- 
tion ami at the expense of the (!ernian Governnu^nt, and is mainly reprinted with additions from 
his annual report for 1S9.">. The description having been based upon the objects exhibited no 
attempt has been made to alter the form. 

MAP WOKK and FOREST DISTIMCTING. 

The first requirement in the management of any property is that all its conditions should be 
known and recordcul; lieiu-e a toi)ographic survey of the forest district to be i)laced under num- 
agement is the first re(|uisite. Such snr\ey refers not only to the boundaries and topographical 
features of the district itself, but also to the surroundings, es])ecially with reference to connef-tious 
with markets. Finally, for government forests, the geographical position of the forest areas in 
general should be grouped according to ownership. JNIaps of the latter description were exhibited 
from the Governments of Bavaria and of Wurttemberg. 

These show iu three different colors the forest areas belonging to the (Government, to commu- 
nities and institutions, and to private owners. From these it could be seen not oidy that the three 
classes of proprietors share about equally iu the ownership of the forest area, but that the 
Government owns mainly the forests on the mountains, where forest management must be carried 
on not for profit, but for indirect benelits iu the preservation of favorable soil and water conditions, 
which therefore makes the permaiumt, well-organized management "by and for the people" 
necessary. Contrary to the notion to which currency is so often given in the United States, the 
various governments of (ierraauy do not own more than :i~j per cent, exercising jiartial control (so 
as to prevent destruction aud waste) over only 15 per ceut iu the hands of communities and 
institutions, and leaving the balance of .'")l) per cent of the forest area in private hands almost 
entirely without restriction. 

Sometimes the contours of the country are also indicated on the maps, which serve the useful 
economic purpose of permitting ready reference of the forest areas to the topography. As an 
instance of such work there was shown a relief maj) of llesse. On this the forest areas were 
indicated in green color. 

For the sake of orderly administration, tiie wh-ole country is separated into forest divisions or 
inspections (sometimes both), each of which forms a se))arate unit of admiuistralion. 

It is to be understood that we are now speaking ouly of the Government forests, which are 
under a uniform general administration. 

The administration of the Government forests is usually assigned either to the ti nance 



GKlt.MAN FOREST MANAGEMENT SUliVEY. 239 

(lepin-tineiit (as in llavaria) iir to tlie (k-partmciit of ayricuKuic and (brcstry fas in I'nissla), with 
onci dii(!ct()f and coiincil directly in cliar,!;c under the. .siiiieivision of tiie ininistcr or .sccietary. 
TIh" position of tiio director (Obi'ilaudtbistnicistcr) corresponds soniewiiat (o that of our Com- 
niissioner of the (leneral I.and Ollice, except that, an extensive technical kuow'ledye heinj;- needed 
in the position, the incumbent ia promoted througli all i)ositions IVom the h>\ver f;rades. Aj^ain, 
each tbi-est division is ]ilaced under a separate! administrative bo<ly consistin.i;- of an administrator 
(Olierforstnieister) with a council of forest inspectors (I'^orstmeisteri, ea(;h of whom has supervision 
of a nund)er of the- linal units of administration, the forest districts (( )berfoersterei, Forstamt). 
Tlie district olticer (Oberfoerster, Jtevierfoerster, etc.), with a nnndier of assistants, I'angers 
(Foerster), and fiuards (Schut/.beamte), is then the manai;er and executive olticer in the, forest 
itself, while the liij;her su])ervisiu};- and iusjjectinj;- oflicials are located at the seals of fi'overument. 

SURVE\' OF TIIJ-; FOKEST IHSTIMOT. 

The survey of each forest district is carried out to the utmost minutia'. 

In I'russia the nuips of the distiicts are made on tliescaleof 1 :5,()0(l in poitfolio shet^ts, re|)ie- 
sentiny a careful survey by tlieodolite of the boundarh'S of the district, the permanent dilferences 
of soil and occu])ancy (roads, waters, lields, meadows, moors, etc.), and the division of the district 
into sandier units of management. This kind of nuip, of whicii only three copies are made, is 
then, lbri)urposes of use in daily routine, reduced to a scale of 1 :!.'."),()()(» on oneslieet, and printed. 
The first matter of interest that strikes us on these blank or base nuijis is the division lines by 
which the district is divided into i)arcels or oompartments. In the plain these lines divide the 
district into re.i;idar oblong compartments (.lagen) of about (ill to !'> acrc^s each, with sides of 1(10 
and 200 yards, r(!si)ectively, separated by openings or avenues wliicli we may call "rides" (destell, 
Schueisse), so that the whole makes the appearance very nuu'h like the maj) of an American city 
regularly divided into blocks. The rides (from S to 40 rods wide) ruuning east and west and north 
and south are lettered, the former, broader ones (main avenues) with capital letters, the latter 
(side avenues) with small letters, while the compartments are numbered. In the forest itself at 
each corner a monument of wood or stone indicates the letters of the rides and nnnd)ers of the 
compart tnents, rendering it easy to tiud oner's way or direct any laborer to any place in the forest. 
The rides are often used as roads and serve also the purpose of checking tires, etc. 

In the hill and mountain districts this regular division becomes impracticable and the lines of 
compartments conform to the contour, while (he opening of the aveinies is restricted to those 
which can be leadily transformed into roads; roads, indeed, determining the division lines 
wherever practicable. 

In hdl or mountain districts tojxigraphic or contour nni))s become necessary, especially for the 
l)urpose of rational roa<l constinction, a matter on which in modern times great stress is laid and 
to whicli we shall ri'fer latei' on more in detail. Such contour ma[)s are sometimes executed in 
l)apier inache or gypsum models for readier refereiu-e. 

1'1MNC1I'I>KS Ol' MANACKMENT. 

The fundamental principles uimn which the German Government forests and most of the 
communal and private forests are managed is brietly expressed in the idea that the forest growth 
is to be treated as a croit to be reproduced as soon as harvested, involving contiuuity of crops. 
Tocarry this luincijile into etfect mostad va;itag«ously the management must take care tohusbaiul 
the natuial forces and <'<Hulitions upon which thrifty forest growth relies, which leads to the 
second principle, that of highest elhciency of crops, or the two leading ])rinciples combined, to 
produce the largest amounts of nuiterial (or revenue) in the shortest tinu' without impairing the 
condition and caiiacity for reproduction of the forest. peri)etuating valuable forest growth wher- 
ever this is the best crop or where soil conditions make a forest covei- desirable, in government 
forests in addition the linancial principle prevails of treating the forest as a i)ernninently invested 
capital, from which only the interest is to be used, making tlu! amount harvested or the revenue 
derived to be as Tiearly alike from year to year or from ix'iiod to period, and as nearly correspond- 
ing to the annual accretion, as it is possible to nud;e them. 



240 FORESTRY INVESTIGATIONS U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 

The preseut Obeihuidforstnieister, or diieutor, of the I'nussiau forest department uses tlie 
following language in laying down the principles upon which tlie (loverniuent uiauages its forests: 

Tlio Pnissiuu State forest admiiiistnitiou does not accede to the iiriuciples of a coutinuous liij;licst soil reut 
based iipou compouud iuturcst calculations, but believes, ill coutiadistinction to private forest maiiageiiieut, that it 
can not avoid tlie obligatlun in the inanagenieut of the State forests of keeping in view the welfare of the whole 
coniuuinity of citizens, and therein taking into consideiatiou the neeil for continued supply of wood and other forest 
products as well as the other objects to whieli in so many directions the forest is subservient. The ailministration 
does not consider itself entitled to pursue a one-sided financial poli<-y, least of all to submit the Government forests 
to a pure money-making management strictly based on capital and interest calculations, but considers it its duty to 
so manage tlio forests as a patrimony belonging to the whole nation that th(^ preseut generation may bobenelited by 
the Iiigliest jiossible usufruct in satisfying its wants and deriving the protection which the forest renders, and that 
to future generations may lie secured at least as large usufruct of the same kind. 

To carry out these principles the iutiuiale knowledge of the couditions of the property, 
referred to above, is necessary and is obtained by a careful forest survey as a basis for a systematic 
adniiuistratiou and forest regulation. 

These data of this forest survey are not only recorded in writing but such as can be readily 
uoted are liually placed upon the blauk niajjs described above, together with the results of the 
forest regulation described further on, so that the manager can readily overlook the details of his 
district and the propositions for its manageinent.' This information — after further subdivision of 
the compartments where needed on account of differences in soil conditions or growth— is given by 
means of different colors, difference in shade, numbers, figures, marks, and signs. These maps, 
which are pre] tared after a most |)aiustaking forest survey, and which we may call " manager's 
map" (Plate XXXII), show at a glance not oidy the nature of soil conditions and what the prin- 
cipal kind of timber and its admixtures are in each compartment or subdivision, but also bow old 
the growth; whether it is to be treated as a^ coppice, standard coppice, or timber forest; at what 
period in the rotation it is to be cut, aiul such notes as the manager him.self may add from year 
to year, as, for instance, the yearly fellings, plantings, movable nurseries, new road projects, etc. 

One of the most instructive exhibits in this direction was that showing the changes in Timlitz 
forest, iSaxony. The mai) of the district in 1822 presented about the condition of one of our 
mismanaged Michigan forests of jtine and hard woods mixed, from which all the good timber had 
been culled, leaving it to inferior kinds with few groups of straggling pines and more valuable 
hard woods, without symmetry or system in the distribution of kinds or age classes. At the same 
time a map was constructed showing ideally how the forest was to look after eighty years' well- 
planned )iuinagement. We can then follow in the maps made every ten or twenty years the 
changes in appearance under the hand of the forester. During the management new information 
and exi)ericnce liave dictated modilications of the original working plan, giving rise to a new 
manager's map, the apjjroach to which appearing in the timber map lor 1SS5 leaves no doubt that 
at the end of the period of regulation we will have a well-grown pine forest, with deciduous trees 
mixed in or confined to the more suitable situations, so disposed over the area that annually or 
periodically the .same amount, or nearly .so, of valuable material can be harvested. 

The painstaking methods of surveying, describing, measuring, calculating, planning, book- 
keeping, and repeated revising of all the work from decade to decade were shown in the regulation 
work of the district of Ilinteruah, Prussia, contained in six large folio volumes of manuscript, 
continued from the year 1S22 to the last revision in 1890. We can only briefly indicate what this 
work involves, which was brietly summarized in the following exhibit: 

EouEsT Regulation. 

ri!0(iI:KSS (IF W(1I!K UKijriKKli T(l ItHI.NIi I'llKKSr AREAS 1:NUEK UATIONAI, K(ll;K.sr ,MANA(iK,MENT. 

I. iii'odetic (ind topogrdphic tutrrei/ und iiittppinfi. 
II. Fuifst siii-vey in connection with I, noting all areas disliiiguished by c|uality of soil, eomposition, and age of 
timber; general description of forest conditions, of climatic conditions, of surrounding couditions, of 
possible dangers, of market couditions, means of transportation, etc. 



'Each State government jiursues somewh.it different methods of mapping. Sometimes two sets of maps are 
m.ade, one to show tlie conditions, whieli might then be called a timber maji, the other to .show the working plan; 
but tliese are now mostlv combined into one. 



(iKKiMAX F0I;EST MANAOEMENT — FOREST KEGl'LATK (N. 211 

III. lon.l dMncIbi,,. Division of forest into ,,aT.',.|s ,„■ 1„(h ;„„[ ;,-.rog,iti,.n of lots Into MorUs mi.l rMv.s In tl„. 

l.l;nn,re,'ta,i,.i;nlaiMots,,llvid,-(ll^v.-tonMllin,.Hrallnlil,Irs((o.strll),M,n>rnstoi,,arv; in liill v ami monntainoiis 
ronntry division linrs follow tlic c.nfi-uiatioii of soil. I lilfm.ncrs of soil or rbaiartrr of i;i oivl h «illiin lots 
,u;iv(i rise to fonnjil ion of siililots. 

IV. FonsI iiUld nihiulUm ( asse.ssni.'Ul ). Ascertaining aiiioinits of tiinl.er stanilln,^. ralo of -n,wll, ,„, varn.iis .-.itt-s. 

(Ietciiiiinin,n- i-ipiihility of ]in)(liiction and future yield in material .iiid ni,Mi(v\-. 

V. Ilctrrmiiiii,;, iihii, of ,i„i,ia;in,i(:„t ( workinj;- jilaiis). (;(,iiera,l |da,n for all time; speei.il plans lor period ol (e 

twenty years. Detormininj; length of rotation; amounts .Miiiiially to I.e ,-iit, desi;;natinj,' lots I,, l,e, ,iit 
will, a view toolit.ainin- favorable distribution of a-e elasses; tliiiini,i;;s to l.emadc; methods to !.,■ nsed' 
HI lelliii}; and cultures. 

.METJlnlJS Ul' I'OK'EST KlOtUILATK )iN. 

Ill I'nissia it wa.s Kicdeiick tin- (ircat wlio lirst oideml a n-ulakMl admiiiisdalinn df tlic 
Governiiieut forests soon itCtcr the bcoinnjno- „f hj.s leiyii. Tlic liist .simpl.. luo.siiipij.ins of 
dividing tlif foiest.s into im[Iui1 areas and cutting every yotir a propoition;it(^ ;nca weic followed n|i 
witli more elaborate ordinaiiees, liaving in view a closer eciiializatioii of tlie ;uii'jtiiits of iii;iteii;il 
li;ir\csted and revenues olttttined, besides other considerations of inaiiagement for coiitinnilv, until 
tiii;il!y tlie basis for present methods of regulatiou was reached in tlie ordiiKinee of is;;(;,'.since 
nioditied in its details, under which "the preservation, revision, and jierfection of the wiirk of 
forest valuation ;iiid regulation " is carried on. 

The modus ojierandi, siniil;ir in princiiile in ail (lovernment forest ttdministrations. is :ib..iii ;i.s 
follows: 

Let us assume that tlie (iovernmeut has purchased' a new foiest district, coniprisino, sav, 
10,000 acres, the ;iverage si/.e of the existing districts. The necessary sin veys ;im| bl;iiik"iii;ip.s, 
as explained, have been nnide and the bound;iries carefully established in the Held, the divisioii 
into compartments Of ]>;ircels, larger or smaller according to the iiceil of a more or less intensive 
management, have been noted on the maiis and marked on the ground (the avenues jn'rliaps 
partially opened), ;ind for the sake of satisfactory administration a niimlier of the piircels have 
been combined into subdistriets, " block.s," or ranges; and thus the Hrst— purely geometrical- 
basis for a rational administration has been established. Now the ;irithmetical basis is to be 
ascertiiined. For this, in the lirst place, :i general description of the district in its present 
condition is desiniblc, parts of which, however, cau be furnished only after the more thorough 
measurements de.scriiied later. Such a description recites all needful knowledge regarding t?ie 
extent, the manner of division, the boundaries, and the legal rights. Next follows a'^Ie.scription 
in general terms of topography, climate, and .soil conditions, aud of the forest growth, heing a 
conden.s;!! ion of the special de.scrii.tioii by parcels. The manner of treatment hitherto, the market 
conditions, current market jirices, and usual wages are noted. Then, alter recital of the processes 
and methods by which the iiiforniatioii in the following detail work has been obtained, the jirinciples 
adopted for the maimgement and its motivation are staled, forming a gi^neral guide for the manager 
for all time. 

These principles are formuhited by a comnii.ssion after sutlicicnt general knowledge of the 
condition of the district is obtained. In this important part of the general descrijitioiMiot oiil\ 
the territorial partition of the district into couipartmeuts and blocks or ranges is determined, anil 
reasons given for it, but also the system of management for e;ich block or i)arts of blocks, whether 

I Prices for forest soil vary, of course, according to tbeir bication and condition, jiist as in our country, in ISI',1 
Bavaria, sold 27,(Ml(> acres of \wr State forests at ^tlS j.er acre. In Prussia tlio (lo\ ernnient lias lately ( lss|-lss7) jiaid 
prices ranging from .+.■. to $t)0 ])or aero, ami for a round 70,000 acres tlie jirice per acn^ w as .$21 aviTanc 'I'beso were 
mostly devastated waste lands in the nortbern plain. In Tlinrinyia, where |irices for wood and lamr.are bi-hcr the 
price for forest land is from $20 to $00 and as high as $80. These prices do not, of coiirs.', include any tiiiiljci"i;To\vtb 
the value of which, if present, is calculatoil according to well-known careful methods of det,enuiniiig "cxiK'ctation 
values." According to a calculation by Dr. .1. Leiir, liased on tbi^ net income as represonling intcrest'at a i; iicr cent 
rate, and assuming a ninety-year rotation of the forest growth for the entire (ieinian Emiiire, the forest laud was 
worth $1'.") pir acre and the wood on it $151) per acre. 

U. Doc. 181 10 



242 FORESTRY INVEi^TIGATIOXS U. S. DEPARTMENT OE AORICULTUKE. 

coppice, standard coppice, timber forest, etc.,' and the Ien.ntb of rotation — i. e., the time within 
wliich a block is to be cut over and reproduced; furthermore, the principles according to whicli 
the fellinijs are to progress, reprocbiction is to be secured, thinnin};s are to be made, the annual 
yiehl to lie ex))ected, and the time witliin which the forest is to be brought into a regular system 
atic order of management — in .short, all the general framework of the management as far as 
determining a s(^t jjolicy into which the si)eeial working i)lans should lit. liefore this report can 
be made tinal, however, the work of the valuator or examiner njust have |)roceeded to some extent. 

VALUATION WORK. 

The valuator or estimator, upon whose work as a basis the general and special working i)lans 
depend, begins by exaunniTig and descrildng brielly the conditions of the soil, its productive 
cai)acity, and the kind and ai>pearaiice of the growth in each compartment (or subparcel, if con- 
ditions of growth or soil make such subdivision desirable). In the descripticui the dominating 
kind of timber, or, if mixed in e(iual propt)rtions, that upon which the management i.s to be jaond- 



' Note. — Timlier forest (Hochwiild, high Ibn'st) i.s a foroBt In wliirh trees are allowed to grow to niatiirity, and 
reprodiietiou is etlei'tcd eitlier hy natural seeding Ironi tin' old growth in various ways, or by jilanting or sowing 
after removal of tlu) old growth; it is usually managed In rotations of 70 to I'.'O years. 

C'opi>ice (Niederwalil, low forest) is a forest in whiih reprodiietion is expeeted li,\ spronls from the stumps; 
this is usually managed In rnt.atioiis of Id to 10 ye.irs. 

.Standard eopjiiec (Mittelwald, middle forest) Is a eomlilnatimi of the two former, Ihe st:ind.irds lieing allowed 
to grow to maturity .■in<l reproduetion hiding seinred liolli by seeil and sjiroul lug. 

Delenniniiitj Ihe rotation. — Onr friends wIjo are attempting to bring about a. nion^ rational tri^atnient of onr 
forests have often a mistaken notion as to when timber should be cut, when It is re.idy for tl](' li;irvest. This eau 
not be determined by any set period, as in the ripening of fruit In agrieulturi-, or liv any more or less itellned age, 
nmeh less by any diameter measure. 'I'lie iletenniuation of the " felling age'' ( llaiil>arUellsalter) or (d'tho lenglli of 
" rotation"' (IJmtrleh) depends on the us(^ to whieli the. ei'op is to be put, 11n^ manner in which it is to bo reproduced, 
and the amount of material that can bo iiroduei^d, or the. amount id' jiiidit tli.it can be diuived I'roin it. This 
ileterminatiou is inu' of the most dillicult, rei|ulriug both careful linancial caleulatlon and knowledge (d' I'orcst 
teclini<{Ue. 

The " silvlcultnrul rotation " is that wlilcli considers mainly tlu'. fiucst tcidinic|ni', being the time u hen jierfect 
natural reproduction is nn>st surely attainable — i. e., fullest .seed produ<-tion in tliuber forest, highest sprouting 
ea)>ai-ity in eoppiee I'orest; or when preservation of the productive eajiai-ity of the soil, avoidance <d' daruage from 
windfalls, di.soases, ete., are uppermost c(msiderati<ius. These considerations of i-onrscwilso iutlnenci^ In part the 
dcterminaticMi of any of tlio following rotations, which we may call " econonne rotations." 

The "rotation of greatest nniterial juodnetion " is that \\ liicli allows the fon^st to grow as long .as tlu' average 
annual aeeretion is at a maximum. This dilf(Ts of course with species, cliuuite, s(nl, etc. If for the mass of 

material we substitute its mom^y value and strive to so arrange tliat the- tinu' i<{ rotati ■oineidcs with the largest 

money returns, wii have a " tinancial rotation." 

Various points of view lead to different kinds of linancial rotations: 

" Rotation of the highest harvest value," en- " technictal relation," which attempts to ]>roduee eertain desired 
sizes ami (inalities in largest (juantity with a view of obtaining thereby the largest nu>ney n^tiiru for the crop uiuler 
the circumstances (luanagcnmnt for t(d(^graph poles, fence posts, osier holts, tan-oak cojipici!). 

" Rotation of the highest forest revenue," when the growth is to be harvested at the tinui of Its maximum average 
annual net money value; this tone is inlluenee<l Iioth by the aujount of material and tlie jiricc jiaid for better sizes 
and iinality <d' wood. In this rotation lui reg.-ird is pa.ld to the original cajiital invested in the soil ; when this Latter 
factor is introduced into the calculation we arrive at the true " linancial rotation" or " rotation of the highest soil 
(or ground ) rent,'' in which the forest is to bo cut at a time when the capital invested in soil, stock, and management 
furnishes the highest interest rate. This capital, as far as the soil is concerned, nuiy he represented by its actual 
cost or by its market value, or else liy its capacity fin' jiroduction ( Uodenorwartnngswertli ; soil-expectation value), 
which is found liy adding the values of expected returns at harvest discounted to the ]iroscnt time and deducting 
the expenses incurred up to the time of harvest, similarly discounted. 

To deteruune this value experieuce tables nnist give the data. Local conditions and prices and the rate of 
interest applied of course inlluence the length of thii linancial rotation. It is shortest for a tirewood management 
(in Germany, say (iO to 70 years), for spruce and pine at an interest late of 2 to 3 per cent a rotation of 70 to tlO years, 
with oak IL'I) years, appear as iirotitablo rotations; where sm.i.ll sizes, nnuing timber, jiosts, poles, etc., are bringing 
good i)rices, the most proti table linancial rotation may be shorter. It stands to reason tliat the length of this rotation, 
as well as of all others, can be only approximately calcnlatc^il. The forestry literature of (Jermany is most prolific 
just now with regard to determining fiuaueial rotations, and the highest nuithematical skill is employed in the 
discussion. 

Growth ( liestand, stand) is here and furthei- on used in the collective sense of the word to denote an aggregate 
of trees, for which also the word '■stand" nia\ be employed. 



GERMAN KOREST MANAGEMENT RllOUEATING A FOREST. 



13 



neiitly based, is named first, and tlie average age of the giowtii witli special relerenec to tiic 
dominating tind)er is ascertained (or the ])ii!|)ose ot ranging tiie parcel into an "age class," which 
comi)rises usually twenty yi'ars, so that (he growdi of I to I'O, '21 to 10, tl (o 'iO years, etc., I'orm 
each an age class or period. 'IMie densKy ol' the growth and larg(^r openings devoid of tree growth 
are specially notcnl. The valuator at the same time is expected to form, from general a])pearances, 
an opinion as to the Ijest treatment of each parcel in the neai- future, and note it, and especially 
whether (he giowdi is to be, cut during an earlier or later period than its age would warrant, 
considering the likelihood of its thrifty or its unsatisfactory growth. Ue also estimates the amounts 
to be taken out in thinnings for the next twenty years. 

With this informatiiui established a table may be constrnciiMl, in which the arc^aof each jiarcel 
is enteied, according to its average age or "age class," modilied by considerations of j>roductive 
capacity, and from (his a "tindicr ma|)" is nuide, showing the piesent conilitioiis of the forest, 
the kind of (b)niinating tiinl)er in each jiarcel being denoted by a color, intermixed timbers by 
signs, and the age by the shade of Uw color in 1, .T, or (i gradations, according to the number of age 
classes, as shown in the accompanying ideal map. 

ARRANUEIMKN'r ol' A(iE CLASSES. 



Now follows tlie dcleiriiination of th(! future arrangement of age classes, the objccti of which 
is to have, when the forest is regulated, in cacli period of the rotation an api)roxiinately eipial or 
e(iually i>rodncing area to Ixi cut. It therefore becomes inn-essary to shift the distribution of age 
classes, in order to attain the eiiuality of the sum of areas in each [leriod. In addition to t-ht! in(!re 
e(|Uali/.ation of areas, (heie are s<'Veral other considiu-ations guiding the valuator in arranging the 
age classes. The oldest timber, as well as that which tor sonu; reason has (teased to make 
satisfactory growth, is of coui'se to be cut- first; hence the conditions of these areas are more 
s[»u'ially examini'd regarding health, density of cover, soil, vigor, etc. In (Niniferous growths, 
especially in the (ilain, the danger from wiudliills, if one parcel is cut and thereby (he other 
exposed to the ])revailing slorms, necessita(es such an arrangement in the location of the fellings 
(or age classes) that the removal of an old growth will leave l)ehind it a young giowtli which is 
less liable to be thrown. This local distribution of the age classes by which, in the direction of 
the prevailing winds, no two neighboring growths aie assigned to the same period is also desirable 
from other considcrat i()ns. Uy avoiding a series of extensive fellings side by side the danger from 
tires is lessened and liability to spread of diseases and insect attacks, danger from frost, and 
drought to young growths is confined or reduced. Hence an arrangement of the age classes as 
near as j)ossible after the following scheme has been generally adopted, in which the Itoman figures 
denote tlu! age classes, I standing for the oldest growth, containing, if the rotation has been set 
at lot) years, timber of SO to 100 years, to be felled within tln^ first twenty years; II for that to be 
felleil within twenty-o!ie to forty years from the iireseut, and so on; V to be felled in from eighty 
to one hundred years. 



I'rcvailiii;^' wiiiils- 



III 


I 


IV 


It 


V 


III 


I IV 


11 


V III 


I 



Tic. 2:1. lll:ii;i:i 



: .tri .(ULiiiiniit (if .'iiir classf'S. 



In mountainous districts, where the topograi)hy influences the expense of transportation, 
fellings are often more (concentrated and (he higher parcels used and rei>rodiiced bcl'oie the lower, 
in order (o avoid injury to tlu^ young growth by a rtjversed ('ondition when the material from above 
would have to jiass through the young growth below. Various minor points may also dictati; 
exceptional arrangement. In coppice growth, needed j)rotection of the stocks against cold north 



244 



FORESTl.'Y IXVESTIGATIONS U. S. UEPARl'MENl' OF AGKICULTLKE. 



winds makes it desiiable to liave the lVlliiii;s ])n)gress IVoiii tlie soiiMi and west toward north and 
east. Altogether it will have become apiiarent that the distribution of successive fellinss is an 
important matter, not only lioni the standpoint of regulated administration, Imt also of sneeessfnl 
culture. 

In the aueonipanying map (I'l. XXXll) we have attempted to give an idea of the matter on 
whicli a "manager's map" is constru(te<l, and how ideally in a forestof the jilain the arrangement 
of age classes wouhl ajipcar when the forest regulation is |)erlected. 

VIKLM ('ALOI'LATII)NS. 



When the distribution of areas has been effected in accordance with the considerations set 
forth, the yield calculations are made. These are computed after carefid measurements and by 
various methods of <'alculation, which have been (le\eloped after niiicli experience during more 
than one hundred years. 

Since the ditVeren! '•ompartnients are cut at ditleient times, not only the i)resent '-stoik on 



HUNDRED 

CUBIC FT. 

180 



100 



140 



i:;o 



100 



80 
60 

40 
20 





,S 


prucc. 
'ir. 
'ine. 
leech. 
















y 


r 

F 
















-- 


I 








^ 


/ 


/ 
/ 




^ u 












>^ 


/ 


>' 


/ 
/ 
/ 






rl3> 

J' 

• 










*3 


f 


/ 


/ 
/ 


:. ; 


...»•'•• 

• 










/ 






••"'" 


I?'' 


5 


rx^ 


/S 








/ •** 




'■■/- 






^ 




5?'3 


- " 




.y 


/ 




> 


^< 




^inr- 


T 


Pel 


>•'*'••* 




^--- 


^' 


^ 




0r 


■^' 


I--- 


"' 















HUNDRED 
CUBIC FT. 

180 



160 



14.0 



- 120 



>^ - 100 



80 



GO 



40 







10 



:;o ;!0 



w 



fiO 



GO 70 80 90 100 110 120YEARS 



La — Dhi'^ram slmwin;; <iiiii|i;irnli\ '• lirn; 



III' yiilil^ iif Mlinirf, fii-, pini-. ;i!iii Iicoili mi liisl .'iiul jmort's: silt^ 



hand" needs to be measured, but also the accretion foi' each age class from the present to the 
middle of the period in whicli it is to be utilized as to total (piantity (decreasing in arithmetical 
proportion as the stock on hand is diminished by fellings), when by adding the two quantities and 
dividing the total by the number of yeais in the rotation or time of regulation the eipialized 
yearly (juota to be utilized, or " felling budget" (Ilaubarkeitsertrag or etat), can be calculated. 

The determination of existing stock is made by measuring diameter breast high by means of 
calipers, estimating the average height, and calculating contents with the. aid of tables which give 
the corresponding volumes of timber wood (above 3 inches diameter). These tables are coustrncted 
after numberless detail measurements, from which the " factor of shape" for each siiecies, soil, or 
climate is derived, for, since the tree is neither a cylinder nor a cone, which could be calculated 
from the base and height, the moditicatiou from either of these two forms, the " factor of shape" 
must be determined ex])erimentally in order to arrive at tiie approximately true contents. In 
very irregular growths and with skillful valuators a simple estimating of contents or the use of 
so called normal yield or " experience tables," which give for the various sjiccies, soils, and climates 
the aiuount of wood that would normally be i>roduced per acre at a given period, is not excluded. 



(lEK'MAN KORF.ST MANAGEMENT — FOK'KST KKCULATION. 



•245 



XoriiKt! i/itht tiihir for sitvitrr. 
I Mam i: row 111 (rx elusive (.T t liiniiinuN) j-i r arn'.| 



Sitr tUtiS I. 



10 years.. 
•JOyi-ars . 
;iO yeni.s.. 
40 yeurs . 
'jO yt'ars. . 
(iO years. . 
70 vrars.. 
Hll years. . 
!H» V»^ar>t.. 

lot) \e;iis.. 
Ilnyears.. 
11!!) ve;ir-(. . 



N 


III) 


Iv 


■es. 


, 


ri9i 



SI'.tiuM 
illCil c^|• 

iill in-i's 

l>II>ilal 
liinh. 



'■;■ 



.S'|7.' rlills II. 



10 yearn. 
20 vcara. 
;«) vi-!iis. 

411 ywlra. 

50 years. 

60 yi'ars. 

70 years. 

>*0 year« . 

'.10 years. 
100 \.-ars. 
110 years, 
rjo years. 



1.700 

1 , llfi.'. 

724 

515 

:iao 
:«1 
•JliO 
■ZVi 
2'J'.I 
J'Jti 



2. :it.» 

l.Ol'.l 
1, 161 

«rj 
6:i:) 
iU 
:i5ii 
.■ioi 
2'.i:-i 



411. i 

II4.4 
1.5'.l. 5 
188.4 
2III1. 7 
223. S 
2:i7. 1 
244.11 
2.io. II 
•iW 1 



\\fr- 
he'iKht. 



r.rl. 
4.11 
10.7 
211. 2 i 
47.6 
02. 6 
76.7 
«S. 2 



w 


onil 


ali< 


>vi* 11 


10 


lies 


liai 


le.er. 



Wood, 
total 



n" 


4 


105 


:i 


112 


*i 


117 


7 


121 


4 



fl. 

80 
101 
003 I 
748 ' 

200 

0.'i5 

2!l!t 
071 
580 



ft. 
715 
174 
204 
378 
623 
025 
198 
213 
043 
715 
272 



A(,'e. 



S,l,' ,1,1-1 III 

10 years 

20 VeaiB 

30 years 

40 i'ears 

50 years 

60 years 

70 yeiirs . . 

80 years 

Oil veil IS 

100 years 

110 sears 

120 years 

S,lf ,-tnu I V. 



Niiiii 
tier of 



Cniss- 
.se. tiiill 
area of 
all trees 
lire.-ist, 
liii^li. 




3, 732 i 

2,412 

1 , 5H0 

1,II.''0 

724 

500 

424 

380 

340 

320 



3, 



201 



151.1 
1811. 
•JOO. 
213. i 

2,31. 
230. 
216 



115 
21. 
35. 1 
47.2 
511,7 
71. s 
83. 
01.5 
117 7 
103.0 
100,0 



315 

1. 1S7 

2, 502 
4,170 
6,220 
7,808 
0, 205 

111. 330 
II, 125 
11,710 
12,200 



415 
1,2111 
2, 4011 
4,018 
5, 791 
7,851 
0,481 
10, 725 
11,083 
12, ,308 
13,013 
13,585 



ill years. .. 

20 years. .. 

30 year.s. - - 

40 years . . 

50 \ears . 

00 years 

70 years. . . 

80 years. . . 

00 \ears . . 
100 '\ ears... 
110 years . . . 
1211 years... 



804 
018 
5.''4 
500 
404 



. ft. 


F.; 1. 


18,3 


1.0 


53. 7 


0. 


80. 


15.7 


130, 1 


25. 


154.0 


30,7 


171.8 


48.2 


185, 3 


511. 


1110.2 


07. 


205 2 


74.1 


211,0 


711. 4 

tJd o 



.fl. 



11.3 
36. 5 

107.0 
130. I 
143.5 
151.11 
102 
172, 3 
181,5 
187.0 
191.4 





140 


1 


287 


■» 


231 


;i 


080 


3 


7110 


4 


301 


4 


848 




305 



200 

772 

1.617 

2, 700 

4, 247 

5, 034 
fi, 893 

7, 094 

8, 801. 

9, 038 
10,200 
10,725 



1,57 

500 

1,044 

1,8.30 

2, 788 

3, 701 
4,519 
5, 248 

5, 763 

6, 249 
6, 7117 
7,150 






I 



III very n'siiliu- -n.wtlis liiiil ■.w.\^ only arc iiicasiircd. The more usual inanner of deter- 
iiiiiiiiiir the' rate (if accn'tioii, liowc.ver, for purpoae.s of yield calciilatioii, is l.y felling sample tree.s 
(if e;icli class, dissect inji- and iiieasiiiius the accretions of jiast periods. 

In modern limes tlie exact measurenicnts are mostly conliiied to the -rowtlis tliiit are utilized 
during- the lirst (ir lirst two periods nf twenty years. 

I'KI.LINC lU!n(;KT. 

After all these data for each compartment iiav. heen hooked, and the yi( Id of liranehwood 
and roots— for even the.se ari^ mostly utilized— as well as tli<^ prohahie amouurs Co he taken out in 
tliinninss, have heen estimated ■uid recorded, and after the likelihood of decreased accretion 
in the (fiffereiit comi.artnients has also been determined from measurements and experience, the 
"felliui;- hudiiet" is dclermined as a, sum of the stock on hand and the amount of annual accretion 
mnllipried hy the time, duriiifi- wlii( h it is allowed to .urow, i. e., in the average to the middle of 

tlu' period in which the c partmenl. is placed, divided hy the period of rotation. Thus a f,rrowtli 

of eighty live \ ears, wlii(di showed a stock on hand of .^Sl-ri cnhic feet per acre, and hence had an 
avera-e accretion hitherto of ;',,S2r. ^ Sr, -= .ir, cnhic feet |)er year, which is likely to h(^ reduced ou 
aeconutof fji-adual reduction in sto(dy and other untoward condili.uis t.. .'.Ocuhic, feet, would yield 
durin- the tirst period .'..SL'.-. + .!() x W = I,!--'.") cubic feet. And if the comiiartmeiit contained .".(> aeie.s 
it should he credited in the working plan in tlu; column for the period I with t,]'-'.") x o(l = L'(l(;,L'r.O 
ciihic feet, r.y adding up the amounts of the yield of all the compartments placed in the tirst 
period and dividin- hy lit* ith(^ leii^lh of the period) the amiiial hudt;et which should he felled 
durinu- the period is found. If, however, it is desired to ei(ualize the fellings mure or less through 
a, l()im"er jieriod— for instance, the tim(^ of rotation— then the amounts in all the periods must be 
siimiiMMl up. and these sums as nearly as possible e(,uali/.ed by shifting the position of the com- 
partments fn.m one period into another (necessitating always new calculati(ms of the accretion) 
until th(^ (M|iializati(in in the jieriodic sums is elfeeted. 

Even then, however, before linally determining the annual budget, acalciilation is made to 
see whether tiie area contains as much timber as it normally should; if more, the budget may be 

increased: if less, a saving must I adc in order to bring up the stock on hand to the normal. 

If, for instance, we know IVom the experience tables thai our forest should normally yield oO cubic 
feet per acre a year in a UHt year rotation, then the normal stock would be KiDx ■".0-^L' = LV".t)<» cubic 



246 FORESTRY INVESTIGATIONS V. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 

feet per aci-e. This is the average amount of wood per acre which we should strive to keep in 
stock in order to get the full benefit of tlie productive capacity of the soil and insure an equal 
growth and equal annual cut for all time. In reality this ideal is, of course, never reached, but 
this so-called normal forest, coiK^eived in ideal condition, serves as a guide in the working ]>lans, 
and the conception Ls a most useful and important one. To i)ut it into practice we must either 
save at tirst on the annual cut until normal condition is attained, or we may increase the cut if 
more old timber than necessary for normal stock is on the ground. Additional reserves may also 
be provided for to avoid any unforeseen shortcomings in tlie budget due to insect ravages, mis- 
takes in calculations, etc. 

We can not licie enter into the details of all the work of the valuator, being satisfied with 
having indicated in general the methods jtursued. In coppice management, of course, all these 
tine calculations become unnecessary, and the i)eriodical or annual cut is determined by area mainly. 

I'^rom the general i)lan thus elaborated the special i)lan for the first period or half period of 
the management is worked out in detail both for fellings, cultures, and other work, road building, 
drainage, etc. This special plan, then, is the basis on which the loital manager finally makes out 
the annual plans of work, which are submitted for revision and api)roval to the controlling otticers. 
Thus, while the gtMieral and s])ecial working jjlans lay down the general principles, the annual 
lilans, into which enter considerations of immediate nei'ds and linaiicial adiustnients, jiermit such 
deviations from the general plans as may appear needful from year to year. J'^very ten or twelve 
years, or at other stated ]H>riods. a careful revision of the whole regulation work is made, in which 
the caiefuUj' noted experieiu'es of the manager are utilizeil to correct and iierfec^t the plans. 

FOKKSr I'ROTKOTION. 

In this country the greatest danger to the forest, besides the indisc^riminate cutting, is to be 
found in fires. How little this scourge of American forests is known in (ierman.y may ajjpear 
from the statistics of tires in the (lovernnient forests of Prussia (lei)resenting fit) i)er <'ent of the 
Cierman forest area), 5(J i)er cent of which arc coniferous, wliicli show tiiat railroading may be 
carried on without the necessity of extra risks, if jirojier ])recautions are i)rovided. During the 
years 18S2-lS!tl there had occurred 150 larger conflagrations — !t(i from nt^gligence, 5.'! from ill will, 
3 from lightning, and only 4 from locomotives. Seven yt^ars out of ten are without any record of 
fire due to this last cause. 

From 1884 to 1887 fires occurred in Pinssia on .'J.IOO acres, but only 1,450 were wholly 
destroyed, i. c., .580 acres per year, or 0.005 per cent of the total aiea of (ioveinment forests. In 
Bavaria during the years 1877-18S1 only 0.007 i)er cent of the forest area was damaged by fire, 
and the loss represented only 0.02 per cent of the forest revenues. During the unusually hot and 
dry summer of 1802 only 49 fires, damaging more or less 5,000 acres, occurred. 

Besides the thorough police organization and tlu^ comi)artment system, whi(!h jiermits not only 
ready patrolling but also ready control of any fire, the system of safety strips, described in the 
report of this division for 1892, where a fuller discussion of this subject nuiy be found, prevents 
the spread of lire from locomotives. 

A much more fruitful cause of damage to the cultivated foiests of Germany is found in insect 
ravages. The annual expenditures in fighting and preventing these in the Prussian Government 
forests in ordinary times amount to about .'j<50,000. daferpillars and beetles eat the leaves, and 
thereby red lU'e the amount of wood produced and the vitality of the tree; l>ark beetles follow and 
kill it; borers of all kinds injure the timber. Hence entomology, the study of life habits of the 
injurious insects and the metliods of chei-king their increase, forms j)art of the forester's work. 

Fungus growth and decay kill the standing tree and injure the cut tind)er. The study and 
methods of counteracting this injury form, therefore, part of the work of the forester. 

FOREST CROV rRoDrCTION OR SILVICULTURE. 

While we have so far considered mainly the administrative and managerial features of German 
forestry practice, we come now to the most important and truly technical biauch of the art, 
namely, the forest <to}) prodiuition or forest culture. This part we may call forestry pro])er, for 
while the metliods of forest regulation, forest utilization, and forest protection, which may be 



(;KRMAN FORKS'!' i\rANA(;i;MKNT SILVTCTn.TtlllE. 



247 



c()iiii>iisi'(l ill the one n;im(', '•lores! ('(•(iiidiiiiis.'" ;ir(' iiicidcMlal, and iii;iy dill'er oven in ininciplo in 
various coiiiiti'ics and conditions, llic iiiclluids of (nop produ(^tion or Ibrest <!nllur(\ bciiifi; based 
on (lie, natural laws of the. iiilcrrclatioiis of jihuifs la soil and cliniatc, must, af ItMst in ])rin('iple, 
1)0 aliko all over Mio world. Ilciti pure forostiy scionci^ linils its application and dcvoloiiniont. 

Tlicso principles liavc lieen elucidated more fully in tlie next clnipt(^r. We will, tlieicfore, 
here only hrietly restate the more iiM|iortanl ones witli some ot' tlieir ap|>licatious in (It^rnniii 
]tra('tice. 

ri.ANTINii. 

Seeminfjly the simidest and easiest way of reproducinji" the c,ro|i is that practiced in av:ricnl- 
tur(>, namely, icmovinji' (he entire mature crop and sowing' or jtlantin};' a new clop. l!ut this 
method, whicdi has heeu so larjiely practiced in tairopc and admired hy our countryiiuMi and 
writers on forestry, has its j^reat drawhacUs, which have of late beciuue more and more apparent, 
and the Icndeiicy now is to return more and more to th(i "natural reproduction.'" VVMiile the 
simplicity of the method of clearinu' ami plaiitini; recommends itself for a routine or stereotype 
imMianemeiit, it has not always piovcd as successful as would hi' <'\i>ected. The lar^e clearinu's 
which the younj;' planted se<>(lliiii;s are, unable, to protc<'t. from th(^ dryin;;' inlliieiuu's of sun and 




hMilfttei»»il.i. 



Ill'l^" ''. -J' *•>■■ J - VI '•'■"■■f ■■.*■■ ■,'■■■ 




Km. *jr>,— Irnii (tilililf usfil in .si-ttin^ mit aiuall pilii- tict-dliii^s. 

wind brini,' about a desiccation and deterioration ofihe forest soil and an enormous iuci'easeot'in.sect 
]U'sts, while other daiijicrs in later life from wind and disease, have Ix'cu larfjely the result of these 
uniforin jirowthw. And when it is understood that to secure a desirable, stand the plautiii};s must 
be <;()iie over au<l fail ])laces re|dauted ti\e, six, and more times, it becomes apjiarent that the 
method is extremely expetisiNc. and hence the proper treatment of tlie natural crop with a view 
to its reproduction liy natural seediiii^' is tlm most imitortant ])art of forest cultnn^ Vet uiidt^r 
(M'.rtain ('(Uiditions, and where no natural croj) to manage is found, ])laiitiii.i;' or sowiiii;- becomes a 
necessity, atnl various methods and tools liave been develoju'd to nu'et various conditions. 

It would exceed the limits ot' this rejiort to (lesciib(^ these various methods; we can refer to 
only one of the sinii>lest, aiul che;ipcsl with which eveiy year many millions of small 1 or '2 year 
old pine seedliiiiis ar(^ set out in soils which do not need or do not ailmit of preparation by plow 
or s|)a(le. The instrument used is an iron dibble, (tiy;. 2.">); the shoe, with one i-ounded and one, tiat 
side, in sliajie lilai a half cone, s inches lonff with ;iA inch base: the handle, a livetugliths-imdi rod, 
'■U feet lon<;, is screwed into the base of the sho(> and carries a wooden crossbar, by which the 
instruiiient is handled. The 7nodiis o])eraiidi is to thrust this ir(Hi dibble into the };roiiiid; then 
by movinj; it lij;iifly back and forth to soimwiiat enlar{;e the hole and withdraw it; a boy or girl 



■24S FORESTRY IXVESTIGATloNS U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRKT'LTrRE. 

puts tlie i.laiitlct ill the liole to the Ihit side; the dibble is thrust again into the ground 1 to 1.^ inches 
back of the lirst hoh' somewliat slantingly toward the bottom, and jiressed forward to fasten the 
l)liiiit in its stand ; then by irregular thrusts the last made hole is obliterated. Two jilaiitcrs with 
a boy, carrying the plants in a mixture of loam and water to keep the roots moist and also heavy 
for better di-opiung, may set r>,00(» plants in a day. 

INTKOmOTlON OF EXOI'ICS — AVHITK TINE YIELllS. 

The \aiua!)lc species of trees indigenous to (iermany which are subject to special consideration 
ill foi(>st management are but few. The most important forest I'orming ones are 1 pine, 1 spruce, 
1 lir, 1 lurch, 1 oak. 1 beech, 1 alder. In addition we tind of broad leaved trees a blue beech, 1 
ash, .'! kinds each of <'1im, maple, and jioplar, in some parts a chestnut, and 1! kinds of birch and 
linden, and several wiUows, together with some 8 or 10 kinds of minor importance, while of 
(■onirers in certain regions 4 other species of pines are found. Some years ago the attention 
of Ihiropean foresters was forcibly turned to the richness of the American forest flora, and a 
movement set in to introduce exotic tree species which might be more productive or show better 
(pialilies than the native. Our white pine, a good-sized section of which was exhibited, had been 
(piite extensively jilanted in the beginning of this century, and the.se plantations, some So or '.»(> 
yeais old, are now coming into use. The (luality of the wood, however, has not as yet found niiich 
favor, but the (punitity iier acre exceeds that of any of the native species, liecords aie extant 
which show, at 70 years of age, a yield of 1 1,000 cubic Icet of wood containing about 7(),(i()() feet 
of lumber 15. M. i)er acre. 

On moderately good Ibrest soil in Sax(my a stand 7S years old contained over 400 ti'ces per 
acre, of whi(^h threetburtlis were white i>ine, the rest si)ruce, larch, beech, and oak. ( )nly '< white 
|piiie trees were under 70 feet high, the majority over SO. Notwithstanding the crowded jiosition, 
only IT) trees were under S inches diameter, the majority over \- inches, the best L'S inches. The 
total yield was lL',SS(»cubi(^ feet of wood jx-r acre, besides the ])roceeds of jirevious thinnings. The 
rate of annual arcretion in cubic feet of wood for white pine in the last years amounted to 2.r> ]wr 
cent of tlie total contents of the trees, or about 0.4 cubic foot jier tree. Of the trunk wood at 
least '.)() Iter cent could be utilized for lumber, sincc^ the shajte of these trunks was so nearly 
cylindrical as to be cfjual in contents to one-half a perfect cylinder of the height and diameter of 
the ti'ees taken breast high. 

A stand SL' years old on poor land produced li;,500 cubic feet of wood, indicating an average 
yield for the eighty-two years of -I'J cubic feet of wood per annum, of which about 700 feet of 
lumber 15. M. could be calculated. On very i)oor soil and planted very thick without admixture 
of hard woods it produced trees L'4 feet high and 5 inches thick in twenty years; and on fairly 
good soil trees '>l feet high, ll.i inches thick, in thirty to thirty-tive years, excelling in either case 
tiie native spruce (7'. r.trrlsd) both in height and thickness. 

it is also of interest to mention in this connection that a plantation of about 7 acres in the city 
forest of Fiaiikfort-on the-Main during the eighteen years ending ISSl brought $115 rent per year 
for the ])ri\ilege of seed collecting alone: failing to produce seed only three out of the eighteen 
years and yielding a maximum of ^'>(W rent during one of the eighteen years: much of the seed 
linding a market in the United .States. 

Ilesides the white pine, the black locust has also for quite a long time found a home in the 
plantations of Europe, but the species which are now propagated in large quantities, having after 
trial shown suiterior advantages in behavior and growth, are our I'acitic coast conifers, the Sitka 
siu'uce, the Douglas spruce, the Lawsoiis cypress, and the Port Orford cedar, sections and jthoto- 
gra])hs of which, grown in (iermany, were exhibited, as well as of black walnut and hickory. These 
trees are now used to plant into fail places or openings, in groujts or single individuals, and are 
especially jirized for their soil-improving (pialities and their rapid growth. 

The methods of management for natural reproduction are generally divided into three classes, 
Jiamely, the coppice, when re])roductioii is expected from the stumps; the standard coppice, when 
])nrt oi the growth consists of sprouts from the stunq) and another )>ait of seedling trees; ami thi' 
timber or high forest, when trees are grown to maturity and, unless haivested and replanted, 
r(q)id(luction is elfected entirely by natural sowing. 



LIEIIMAN F( IRKST MANAGKMKNT: — SlLVlC'l'LTUKi:. 



COIM'U'K INIANAOKMENT. 



249 



This i.raclicf is ciiiiilDyed toi- tiic prodiKtioii ut lircwood. t;iiili:u-k, (■li;u<'();il, ;iii(i wood uf 
siiKili diiiicnsioiis, ;ind is mostly applicahh' only to deciduous Irecs. Tiif <-,a,]iacity of rciirodiictioii 
from the stump is jiosscsscd hy diffi-reiit species in ditfercnt de.>;rees, and depends also on climate 
and soil; shallow soil produces weaker Imt more numerous shoots than a deep, rich soil, and :i 
ndld climate is most favorable to a continuance of the reproductive power. With most trees this 
cai.acity decieases after the iieriod of sif^ife^t lieiRht growth ; they should therefore be cut before 
the thirtieth year, in oi(h'r not to exhaust the stock too much. The oak coppices for tan bark art; 
mauased in a rotation (d' from ten to twenty years. K'e.i^ard to the preservation of reproductivity 
makes it neces.sary to avoid cuttin-- during "heavy frost, to mak.- a smooth cut without severing- the 
bark IVom the stem, ami to make it as low as possible, thus reducing liability to injuries ol' the 
slump and inducing the formation of indei)endent roots by the sprouts. 

It will be found often that on poor and shallow soil tre.'s will cease to thrive, their tojis dying. 
In such cases it is a wise policy to cut them down, thus getting new, thrifty shoots, for whicdi the 
larger root system of the old tree can more readily i)rovide. This practice may also be resorted to 
in order to get a (piiek, straight growth, as sprouts grow more rapidly than seedlings, the increased 
proportion of root to tlie part above ground giving more favorable conditi<Mis of food snpi>ly. It 
must not be forgotten, however, that this advantage has to b(> compensated s<imewheie else by a 
disadvantage: sprouts, tlumgli growing fast in their y<iutli, cease to grow in height at a compara- 
tively early jieriod, and for the [.roductiou of long tiud)er su(di (iracticc woidil be detrinuMital. 

K'egard to the preservation of favm-able soil conditions, whi(di suffer by oft repeated clearing, 
rec|uires the planting of new stocks where old ones have failed. Mixed growth, as everywhere, 
gives the best result. ( )aks, walnut, hi<'kory, chestnut, elm, nmples, birch, (herry. linden, catalpa, 
and, the locust also, with its root sjironting habit, can be used for sncli imrpose. 

If when cutting oil' the spi-outs, at tlie^ age of from I(> to L'l) years, sonu- trees -.ivv. left to grow- 
to larger size, thus coinbiuing the coppice with tindier forest, a management results which the 
('..•ilnans call " .M it telwald," ami whi.-h we may call standard coppice management. 

ST.\Nl)Ai;i> I'OI'l'li'lO. 

This is the MU'thod of management which in our country deserves most atteuliou by farmers, 
especialh' in the Western juairie Stales, where the |iroductiou of fiicwood and timber of small 

dimensions is of lirst importance, while the tindier forest, forthe |.rodm-ti f larger and strcmger 

tiud.eis, can alone s;itisfy the lund)cr market. Th(^ advantages u\' this nielhod of management, 
(rondiiiiiug those of the coppi<-e and of the tindier forest, are: 

I I ) A larg.'i- \\rU\ ol' w.Miil per uci,- In ii >liitil liiiir. 

f2i \ l>i-tti-r c|iialit.v ol' w.hmI. 

iiil A pmdiutii.ii c.r Ui.oil uf \:,Im:iI.1.' :iui\ \ arioiin .li.nnisioiiH ni 111.- Klioit.-at liiin- willi lianlly :iiiy :Ml.liti..ii,-il 

ro.st. 
(1,1 Tlic l»)s^iUility .it ■,'iviii,- .■l"S.T Mlirulioii t„ 111,, urowth :niil iv,|ini .■tiiriits ..r sinj^lr lu.ln kI.k.N .111. 1 .it 

.■;ii ll s|i.'.'ii-s. 
(.'ii A I'.-a.ly :iiiil .■.•ihiiii r<(|ir.iiliirl i.m. 
ii;i 'rill' ii.issil.ilil Y ..f .■.ill.-.-tiiiu .11- u-iiiK tor rflViiesliition, m .-Hl.til ion to the .■o].).i.« sto.-ks, tin- sn-.tn ot tlie 

slan.liir.lN. 

The olii<'cti.ins lo this mode of treatment are the production of branches on the standards 
whi'ii freed ti-om surrouiidiug growth, ami the fact that the standards act more or less injniionsly 
on till' uiidiMWood which ihey overtop. 

The lirst objection can be overcome to a> certain extent by iirnning. ami the second by proi)er 
selection and adjustment of coiipice wood and standanls. The selection of standards— w hudi 
pieleralilv should lie seedlings, as coppice shoots are more likely to deteriorate in later lif( — must 
be mit only from such species as by isohition will grow into more useful timber, but if possible 

IV those whi(di have thin foliage, thus causing the least injury by theii' co\er to the underwood. 

The latter should, of course, be taken from those kinds that will best endure shade. Oaks, ashes. 

ma|iles, locust, h y locust, larch, bald cypiess. a few biivhes, and perlia|is an occasional aspen. 

answer well for the standards: tin' stdection for such should nat iirally be from t he best grown 



2f>0 FORESTRY INVESTIGATIONS U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 

straight trees. Tlie number of staudaids to be held over for timber depeiuls upon the species 
and upon tlie amount of undergrowth wliicli the forester desires to secure. Tlie sliadier and the 
more numerous the standards tlie more will the growth of tlie coppice be suppressed. From a 
first plantation one would naturally be inclined to reserve and hold over all the well-grown 
valuable sa])lin.<;s. The cop])iee is, of course, treated as described above. 

As before mentioned, on account of the free enjoyineiit of light wliich the standards have 
they not only develoi) larger diameters, but also furnish quicker-grown wood (which in deciduous 
trees is usually the best) and bear seed earlier, by which the re|irodiu',tion of the forest from the 
stuiii[) is sui>plemented and assisted. Any failing plantation of mixed growth, consisting of trees 
capable of reproduction by coppice, may be recuperated by cutting the laiger jiart back to the 
stump and reserving only the most promising tre(>s for standards. 

If cijually well-grown coppice and standards are desired, a regular distribution of the standards, 
mostly of the light lU'cdiiig, thin-foliaged kinds, should be made. If ])rominence is given to the 
jirodnction of useful sizes, the standards 7iiay be held over in groujis and in regularly distributed 
specimens, in whicli case those of the shade-enduring kinds are best in gronjis. 

THE TIMHKR FOREST. 

In the timber forest management we may note various methods: The method of selection 
(Plenterwald), in accordance with which only trees of certain size are cut throughout the whole 
forest, and the openings are expected t" till u]) with an after growth sown by the remaining trees. 
This method jirevailed in former ages, but wns tin;illy almost everywhere^ abandoned because of the 
difficulty of organized administration and I'ontrol of such an irregular forest containing trees of 
all ages, and because the after growth is ajit to jirogress lint slowly with fore-grown trees sur- 
rounding and overshadowing it, or may <-onsist of worthless kinds. Of late a rtnival of this 
method with various modifications designed to meet the oliiections is noticealile; the advantage of 
kee])ing the soil constantly shaded and thereby pics(>i \ ing tln^ soil nuiisture also recommending 
this method. Morc^ uniform growths, more regular dislribnt ion of age classes, and a more regu- 
lated administration was possible by various "regeneration methods," by which a certain area — 
a eomi)artiiient— would be taken in hand and the cutting so systeniatically directed that not only 
a uniform young growth would sjiring up through the whole compartment, but by tiie gradual 
removal of the mother trees light would be given to the young growth as needed for its best 
develoiunent. Tliis method (Femelschlag) is jjracticed almost exclusively in the extensive beech 
forests, somewhat in the following manner: 

I!E(iENF,i;ATI(1N MFTIIOTIS. 

In the lirst place it is necessary to know the period at which a full seed year may be expected. 
This differs according to locality and kind. One or more years before such a seed year is expected 
the hitherto dense crown cover is broken by a ])re|)aiatoiy cutting of the inferior timber, enough 
being taken out to let in .some light, or rather warm sunshine, which favors a fuller development 
of seed, the increased (arculatioa of air and light at the same time hastening the decomiiosition of 
the leaf-mold and tliiis forming an acceptable seed bed. 

As soon as the seed Ims dropped to the soil, and perhaps, in tlu^ case of acorns and nuts, been 
covered by allowing pigs to run where it has fallen, a second cutting takes ]ilace unitbrraly over 
the area to be regenerated, in order that the seeds may have the best chance for germination — 
air, moisture, and heat to some degree being necessary — and tliat the seedlings may haveai)roper 
enjoyment of light for their best development and yet not be exiioseil too nuwh to the hot r.ays of 
the snn, which, by producing too rai)id evaiioration and drying up the uctMlful soil moisture, would 
endanger the teiuler seedlings. This cutting requires the nicest adjustment, according to the 
state of the soil, climatic conditions, and the requirements of seedlings of different kinds. 

While the beech reciuires the daikest shade, the pine tiibe and the oaks demand more light, 
and should, by the successive cuttings, be early freed from the shade of the mother trees. Beech 
seedlings are more tender, and only by the gradual removal (often protracted through many 
years) of the shelter of the parent trees can they be aceiistomed to shift for them.se!ves without 



OF.RIMAX FOREST MANA(iF.MF,XT — sIf.VICIILinRE. 2r)l 

liability of being' killed by Irost,. Tlie (inal cntf iiiii' of liic. roniicr fr(>ii(Tut,ii)ii nl' trees leaves many 
tlionsand little seedlinjis closely coveriiii;' the soil with a dense sh;ide. 

That the method of nianaseintMit must diller accordin.n' to s|i('e,ies and local conditions is 
evident; and in a mixed fol•(^st especially are the b(^st. skill and indf^menl of the forestm' re(inired 
to insure favorableconditions for ea(di kitnl to be re|)rodueed. It is to be ex])ecfed that sm'h 
seedlinjis are. rarely satisfactory over the whole area, and that i):irc phu'esof too larfjc extent ninst 
be artilieially sown or planted. 

Another method is the " niana,L;einent in c(;helons" ((!onlissen, Sannisehla.i;), which consists 
in making the clearings in stri]>s, and await inji' the seeding of the clcarini; from the ncij;hborin}i 
jjiowth. Jt is apitlicable to spc-cics with li.nlit scimIs, whit'h the witnl can carry over the area to be 
seeded, snch as larches, lirs, sprnccs, most jiines, etc. 

The cnttinj;s arc made as tniuili as jiossible in an oblonu' sha])e, with the lonjjest sidt^ at rij;ht 
angles to the direction of the jirevailing winds. The lircailth of the clearing, on w hieli occasional 
re.serves of not too spreading crou ns may be left , depends of course on the distance to which t he 
wind can easily carry the seed which is toco\<'r thech^ared area. ( )bservati(Mi and ex])erien<(^ 
will determine the distances In (lermaiiy, for spriwe and l)ine, this lias bc^en found to be twice the 
Leightof the tr(^e: for lart'.h, live or six times the height; for lir, not more than one shaft's length. 
From 200 to .">(iO feet is ))erhaps tli<> rangeoxcr which seeding may b(> thus expected. (^neNcar 
rarely sutlices to cover the <'lea,red area with young growth, and it takes limger in |)roportion to 
the breailth of the cutting. This method is v<My much lesseerfaln in its forestal results than the 
next named, and more often lequires the helping hand of the planter to till out barc^ placivs left 
uncovered by the natural seeding. IJutit is the one that seems to interfei'e least, with oui' pi'csent 
habits of lund)ering. and with it eventually the lirsl elcnu^nts of forestry may be intidduced into 
buubering operations. 

To be sure, it requires from thice to eight limes the area usually brought under opeiation, but 
instead of going over the whole area ever.s yc^ar it, may be operated in a number of small camps 
systeunitieally i)laced along a ceidral road conru'cl ing the ditferent camps or cuttings with the mill. 

As a rule tlu^ ])ine foriists in (birnuuiy are repioduced by artificial plantations, the spruce 
forests by cither natural or artificial regenc^ration. lU' both (Munbined, while the beech forests are 
entirely reproduced as described above, oaks and other hard woods being usually i)lant(^d, although 
a return to a more extended use of natural reproduition is noticeable. 

IMPROVKMKNT ( 'rTTIN( ;S— TH INNIiSitiS. 

The principles which underlie the practice of thinning out young growths in oi'der to accel- 
erate their development have been theoretieally well de\elo]>ed, but tin; jjractice in (iermany 
remains behinil the thetny. The dilliculty of disposing of the material taken out in the thinnings 
discourages the practitioner, and the tinancial value of the opeiation in the a(^celeratioii of the 
remaining crop is not fully appreciated. 

A few results of (lerman i)ractiee in thinning may serve to give an indication of its value. 

A natural growth of i>ine (Scotch) which wasJhinned when six years old showed an increased 
rate of accretion three times as great as tliat of the jiarf not thinned, which was also delicient in 
height growth. 

A 50-year-old spruce (Norway) growth, having been t wicc thinned, showed an average accret ion 
'2'2 ])er cent greater than the i)art not thinned. 

A growth of spruce (naf iiral sowing), slightly mixed w ith maple, aspen, willow, and ironwood, 
when 1.5 years old was opened to the ])oor ])opulafion to take out firewood; thus one-half of the 
growth for a few years was thinned out irregularly. The jiarf thus thinned eighteen years later 
contained foiii' and one half times more wood than the unilislurbed jiarf; the former contained 
trees of from I to inches in diameter and l."» to <i5 feet in height; the latter did not produce any 
above 5 inches in diameter and 48 feet in lieight. 

Another experinuint, made upon a [tine growth .">() yeais old. showed that by interlucation tlu^ 
rate of growth within eleven years stood fhrr-e tooneand three tbiirfhs in lavorof the thinned jiart. 

Another writer planted Scotch pine (i feet apart; two years later he planted the same ground 



2r)2 



FORESTRV INVESTIGATIONS U. S. DEPARTMENT OE AGRICULTURE. 



to briny the stand to '■'> fct-t :ii):ut; he thinned when lifteen years old, and caietuUy measured 
contents when twenty years old. Although the ])laiitation was stocked on ]ioor soil, yet the 
averajie annual accretion was found to be 'JtA.i cords (Austrian) per acre, a yield "which is 
unexcelled." The writer adds that "if in such growths the number of trees is reduced in the 
lil'teenth to twentieth years to -'Sd trees per acre, the yield in sixty years might equal that 
obtained in one liundred or one hundred and fifty years in the old manner."' 

A i)lantation of Norway si>ruce, made with seed, was when thirty-three years old still so dense 
that it was impenetrable; hardly au.\ increase was uoticeable and the trees were (covered with 
lichens. When thirty-five years old il was thinned, and again, when forty-two years old the 
condition of the growth was such as to make a thiniung appear desirable; between the two 
thinning.s, within seven years, the accretion had increased by KiO per cent, or 27 per cent yearly 
in the average, and the ai)pearance of the trees had changed for the better. 

A coiipice of tanbark oak was thinned when lifteen years old on half the area: when twenty 
years old both i)arts were cut, and it was found that the thinned part yielded more wood and more 
and better bark than the unthinned part, and yielded in money 1 1.5 per cent more, although no 
higher ])rice was asked for the better bark. 

An area of 12 ames was planted, one-half with 2 yeai- old pine seedlings from the ibrest, the 
other half with seed. 

Three thinnings were niaile with llie l'i>lli>wing yield of round firewood (cut to billet length 
and over L'-f inches in diameter) and brushwood (less than L.' ,' inches in diameter). 

The phinte<l i)art yielded at the thinnings: 



Wheli- 



FireWDod. Brush. 



Cords. I Cunts. 

lllVL-nrnnM I 1.4 i 1.1 

!.. \e!ira.ilil 4.0 I 2.8 

l.s y.'Jirs i>Iil 4.5 | 2.8 

Totill 10.8 7 



The sowing was lirst tliinned when S years old, yielding: 





WIk-u- 


Firewond. 

1 


Ilrusli. 






Cords. 


Cords. 

:;. (i 
1.4 

7.S 












3.2 


Tohil 




3.2 






1 



In twenty-four yi'ars the total yield, inclusive of thinning, was: 



I'l;nit<Ml |i;iil. 



Si>wcm1 part, 

Ill I'livor iif |>l:iiiti'(l |i:n't 



Ciihif IVeti.f 
.sniid \VO(«l. 

:i, 495 



1,!)98 



1,497 



Thinnings are usually made for the following piu'iioscs: 

(1) Improvement cuttings, to improve the comjiosition of Ihe forest and give advantage to the 
better kiiuls. 

(2) Interlucations, to iminove the form and hasten development of young tind)er. 

(,3) Itegencration cuttings, to jiroduce favorable conditions for seed formation and reiiroduc- 
tion of the forest. 

(1) .\ccretioii cuttings, to improve rate of diameter growth in older timbei-. 

Thinnings are to open the crown-cover, giving access to light and air, their object being to 
accelerate, decomposition of the litter .ind turn it into available jdant food: to improve the form 
and hasten the development of the remaining growth. The degree of thinning depends on soil, 
species, and age, and is best, determined as a projiortion between the present growth and that 
which is to remain with r(^leri^nce eitluM' to erowncover, mass, or diameter. 



CKKMAN FOl;i;Sl' MANAtiEMKXT SILVKULTUKli. 



253 



Since it is ohservcd that in (lie strii-j;le fur existence ainonu tlie individual trees liie|-e are 
(|Mitc early sonic trees j^cltin;; (lie, advantaj;e ami lieconiing dtMiiiiiant, it is intericd that thinnings 
are most cl'lective in I lie earlier |jerio<l ot the cro|>. 

in discussing; tlie dc^iree to wliicli the thinninjj;- is to he made, a, classification of the I ree.s 
accordini;- to the character of their dc\elo|)iiieiit is maih'. by (Icrman I'oresters as follows: 

I Cliixx i.— I'roiliiiiiniMiil lies with lii;;hl.v ilevrlojinl cniwiis. 

I Class .'. — CiMliiiiiiiKuif tici'H Willi ti)Icr.ililv well ilevi'ldiicd riowiis. 
lluiiiiiiaiit or MiMiii loi "iciulli. , ,,, T c 1 1 ■ 1 i 11 i' , , , , 

' ' l<iss ,j. — .Subil(>iinii:iijt tn-es with iKiiiiial iimhus, Iml ] rl\ c1i'V(1ii|mi1 and ciciwded 

I a Iio\ f. 

Class I. — Hoiiuiiatod tvvct, Willi ciuwiih iiiii)rl\ di'Mlnprd and ciuwdcd laterally. 

(«) Crowns wc'd;r|.d ill lalpially, ,vr.t nnl omm topiicd. 

(fi) Crowns lamipresscd, parMy (ivcrtnppi'd. 



Dominated or int'ei ior ;;iowtli. 



(lass i.— SnppresM'd tici's, cntiifly o\ eitop)>ed. 

(11) Crowns still lia\ iiii; \ itality (sliade cniliinnf; spi-eiesi. 
i/>! Crowns dyiui; or dead. 



The followiiiu illustration of the apiicaiance of these tree classes will lie found serviceable in 
iinderstamlinu these relations. 




12 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 II )2 IJ I* 15 16 !7 18 19 20 



Klo. Jl). -'riiT claasc's; Clasailicatioii .iiTiiriliii;; 111 I iiiwiidrvrliiiMii'iil. Siliniiutii' CLi^.i 1 (|ip'iloiniiiaiil ) : .Nii>. 1, :i. li. 1 1, Ifi.Uii. i lass 
2 (.iMloiiiniant); No.s. K, i:i, IS; .•las.'i .1 (sMliilunuMaul I : Xi.s.l), U. 17; ila..,s I {u|iiirf.i.si.-i|) ; ^u,.,',, 7, IJ; chl.->a 5 (su|i|ilc's.scil, a I : Xu.s. L.', C.J; <l;i.-.,, 
5 (sii])]ii<'.s^ciL h) ■- Xos. 4. Pi, 1,'.. 

The decrees of thiuniny usually resorted to are the followinji: 

( 1 ) ISIijiht thinniiif;' takes out trees of class .">. 

(1!) Moderate thinning takes out tribes of class 5 and 4h. 

{'■'>) Severe thinning takes out trees of class .">. I, and soinelinies •!. 

The time when the lirst thinning should take jilace is generally determined by the jiossiliility 
of marketing the extracted material at a jnice which will cover at least the cxiiense. of the 
operation. Tiiis is, however, not always jiossible, and th(^ consideration of the increase in value 
of the remaining growth, or rather of the detriment to the same by omission of timely thinning, 
may then be conclusive. 

On good soil and on mild exposures interlucation may take place earliest, because here the 
growth is rankest and a dillereiice in the dvvelopment of the dilferent stems is soonest noticeable. 



2r)4 



FOKKSTKY INVESTKiATKJNS U. S. DEPAKTMi:NT UF AGRICULTURE. 



Li^ht-ueediiis' iiml <iiiickei-g'iowiii,i; kinds sliow siiiiilar conditions to those grown on good soil, 
and lit're, tlierefoic, early tiiinnings are desirable. In these eases the thinnings have also to he 
repeated ot'tenest, espeeially dnring the period of prevalent heiglit aeeretion. Absolute rules as 
to the time for iiiterliieations and their periodical repetition evidently can not be given. The 
peculiar conditions of each individual case alone can determine this. The golden rule, however, 
is early, often, moderately. The right time for the Ijcgiuning of these regular and periodical 
iuterlucations is generally considered to have arrived when the natural thinning out before 
mentioned coniiiiences and shows the need of the oi)eration. This occurs generally when the 
crop has attainc^d the size of hop i)oles. At tliis stage the well marked difference in size of the 
su|>|iressed trees will i)oint them out as having to fall, and tliere will not be much risk of making 
any gross mistakes. Until the trees have attained their full height the thinning should remain 
moderate. From this time forward it will prove ex|)edient to open out the stock more freely 
without ever going so far as to thin severely. Within the last few years new and revolutionary 
ideas regarding principles aud methods to picvail in thinnings are gaining ground, which we have 
not space here lo discuss. 

UNDKU I'LANTlNli. 



All these manipuhitions ex|)eriencc iiiodilications according to circumstances, difl'erent si)ecies 
and soil conditions re(|uiring ditferent treatment. One of the most interesting modifications, the 
lesults of wiiich in ai given district were fully e\hil)itcd, is the v. Scebach management in beech 
Ibrests. Such a. management, -vhit'li contemplates the pioduction of heavier timber in the siiortest 
time, tries to taiic advantage of the increase in accretion due to an increase of light which is 
secureil by severe thinning, and in older to prevent the drying out of the soil by such severe 
tiiinning a covei- of some shady kind is established by sowing or ])lanting. This cover gradually 
dies oil' under the shade of the old timl)ei', the ci'owns closing again afti'r a iiumbei' of years. The 
rates of growth in a stand of 71) to SO years was thcrelty increased fiom 51 cubic feet per acre and 
year to 77 cubic- feet per acre and year, while a iKUghboring stand, otheiwise tiie same but not so 
treated, iucnsased by only (JO cubic feet, distributed o\er a largei' number of trees. 

The same method is ajijilied to the production of heavy oak timber. In this case the oak 
giowth is thinneel out when about <i() years old antl "under])lanted" with beech. It may also be 
applied to older growths with advantage, as api)ears from the following results: 

A stand of oaks IM) U> KID years old in I.SK; was thinned to 'M'> trees per acre, averaging 
37 cubic Icet of wood per tree, tin; cleared sjiace being ''underiilanted"' with beech and spruce. 
In 18S7 the oaks, now I'.tO to 200 years old, of which .5!t trees only were left, contained .■")() cubic 
feet in the averagts, thus growing during the last forty years more than one half as much as 
during the one hundred and lifty to one hundred and sixty years i)revious to the ojjcration, i. e., 
doubling the rate of growth. In this case, under the light foliaged oaks, some of the beech and 
spruce develoi)ed sulliciently to furnish marketable material. 

With iScotch pine it- has been found in one case that while the average accretion of a stand 
IL'Oyeaisold undei' ordinaiy condition was about 5!! cubic feet i)er acre and year — the yield by 
thinning included — a stand un(leri)lanted with lieecli showed an accretion of 100 cubic feet per 
acre and year, besides much lietter log sizes and earlier supi)ly of saw timber. 

Translated into money an cxamjile fiom IJavaria may be, cited as follows: 

On 1 ;iiTi' of piuo SO ycui.-- old, iiiiderpluiitiHl .il ;i fo.st of $2.sr> pir aiii- witli Ijuoili now 10 years old, there 
wei'c found — 



I Avtirafie 
Tiohl Iff j aniiiijtl 
wood. ai'(Teli(»n 
per acre. 



Cubic.ll 

lo.'i |iiin-.« 'Xi 

•J,3UU liei^cli \U\ 

Total 478 j 



Cubic ft. 
40 



Snppo.iini,' tlii.s .sland to bo lel't, foity yiars longer, il ni:iy he linnrcd lliat the pine would briug .$8.30 and the 
licccli $1L'0; total \ivv aiie, $770, of wliirli .fill was yitddod iu thiuniug.^. White piue without iindrrgrowiugs is 
expected to i)roduco ouly $j-U ptr acre when I'M years old. 



GKKMAN KOKP:sT MAXAGEJIENT — ADMlNISTItATION. 255 

FORESTERS, KOK i;STR V EDUCATION, AND FOUESTRV LITERATURE. 

T(i b(3 .sure, (lie liij;lily I'hiboratc system of forest iidiniiiistratioii and forest iriaiiajLjeineiit here 
outlined could not he developed or maintained witliout ii special liif;li-,t;rade education of those 
who direct the work. This education is iirovided for in the m<jst anii)Ie nuinner, and consists not 
only in theoretical studies at schools, acach^niics, and universities, hut, also in practical studies in 
the forest itself under th(^ j^uidance of competent and experienced lorest nianajicrs. 

The course which applicants for positions in the higher administrative forestry service are 
expected to follow, with more or less modilication in the different states, may be briefly outlined 
here : 

After promotion from college the student goes into the woods for a short period (one half to 
one year) to actpiaint himself, under the guiilance of a district manager, with the general features 
of the business he proposes to engage in, and thereby tests his probable fitness for it. lie then 
visits for two and one-half or three years a forestry school (called academy when by itself, when 
at a university it is connected willi the '"faculty" for national economy), where theoretical studies 
with demonstrations in the forest are pursued. 

After examination aud promotion the applicant is bound at his own expense tooc<-upy himself 
for two years at least in studying the piactice in various districts, changing from ])laci' to place. 
If occupation can be fouml for him he is employed at small daily wages on some scientific or 
administrative work, always keejting an oftieial diary of his doings and observations, certified to 
by the district manager with whom he stays, and wkich forms part of his final examination. l'"or 
nine months during this time he must continuously jicrlbrm all tiie duties (»f a lowei' official — a 
ranger — for a whole or jtart of a. range, ami sometimes also for a gi\en time certain liuurtions 
of a district manager. Then, alter two years of law studies at a university, he enters into a 
close and dilficnll exaniinatinn for a. jiosition as district manager, lasting eight to ten days. IJy 
passing this lie is jilaced on tlit^ list of eligibles, and has tliereliy secured a riglit, eiilbrcible in 
the courts if need be, to a position when a vacan(^y arises and his minu', is reached in fla^ oriler 
of the list. This, in I'russia, may now be within eight or fen years alter listing. Huiing the 
interval he may be, and mostly is, employed on daily wages in vaiious suits of scient ili(; and 
administrative work, such as r(!vising and making new \alnations, laying out roads, acting as 
tutor at the aca-demies or as assistant to district managei's. or else taking the jilace of a. nnmager 
temporarily, cU-. 

The liigher administrative ollices are filled by select i(Uis from the managers, length of service 
counting only wheu special titness for the kind of work reijuired accompanies it; so that, as in the 
army, the highest officer has been through all the gi-ades below, and is conversant with <n"ery 
detail (jf the service. The pay is small, graded in each kirul of position accoiding to length of 
service and somewhat according to the cost ol' living in different ]>laees. The honor of the. position, 
to which usually other honors are added, its permanency, aiul the assurance of a [xMision, graded 
according to length of ser\ ice, in case of disability oi- age, make up tor small s.ilaries. The 
salaries, subject to change fiom time Id tinu\ u ilhout adding the salne of per([uisites like houses, 
farm lands, (^tc., range about as follows in I'russia: 

I (linH-tc)i- (OhiTliiiKlI'dist-iiii'istfr) :f:i, fWO 

t forest coiiiicilorH ( f^;ni(l foist imiHter) $I,S(KI l<i L', 400 

:i:i cliief iiispiicl.ors (OlKsrlbrstiiieistrr) (witli iidditioiis I'or lioiisc ;iii(l travi-liii^ ii|i t()$l,t(lOi I,n."i0 l.'M) 

S!l ins]ii'ctors ( i''orst.in<iisU'r) (with iulditioiis for lioiiso ;niil tr:i\cliiiK "p to -MJUO) !K)() 1, ."lOO 

ti7!l ilistrii-( iiiaiiaiiois (OlicTfocrslcr) ( witli :iililitioiis up to .■fsi',". mnl Imusi' uiid lirld i 500 1)1)0 

'■': >!)!) niu^ers ( I'ocrstci) (wilfi fiims« :iii(t mlditioiis iip to .ft 10) '.'(ill lifJO 

:J1!) guards ( Wiildwaerler) lOli L'OO 

The rangers (foersterj follow different courses of instruction, [lart of which they lectMve in 
subordinate positions iindi'r district managers; while ser\iiig in the army in special battalions 
(cliasseiirs) they receive also theoretical instruction, which is supplemented in special schools. 
When finally promoted to the responsible position of rangers, in which much discretion and 
latitude arc given them, their pay amounts to from ^I'UO to ••?3G0, with a house and field, with the 
assurauce of pension on withdrawal. 



256 FOliESTUY INVESTKiA'lIONS V. t>. DEl'AHTMENT OF AURICLLTUUK. 

Tlie t'olluwiii.i,' sc'liiMils r.rc ])r(nidL'(l I'm- the liii^lier },Mades <il' loii'stiT.s: 

HiijJtcr I'oifslnj mliDtih in ticniiiiiiii I'lir lite iilinalKiii of funxi mnuaijira. 
[A U8tri;i, and Svvilzt'l'hind imluilirl. j 



At universities ; 

(liesNtii HesHe 

Tii liiiiKBii '. WiirttcmlxTi; 

Muniih liavaria 

Al (Milvtei liniiimi: 

K arlsnilii' Haili-n 

Zuricll SwitziMlallil 

\'lo[ina Austria 

Sf'paialo aratletuifs : 

AaibatlVulpur^ Bavaria 

'I'liaraiult Saxon v 

Eisi-nai'li Saxi- Wcunar 

Elii-rsu alilc I I'russia 

iliinden *lo 



■\VImui 
loulul.il. 



1818 
1878 

18:i2 
18:..". 
1875 

18U7 
1811 
18:ai 
i«;ii 

1868 



T.fiiKlii 

l.f I-MU1.SI 

(\rars). 



(M 



lustlMifors 
111 r..r.-str> 
lirancbfs 



T..I1I I '^ ' T-IPP 
' , all.-u. lance 

nu.nb.r .,1 „| ,,„.,.,, . 



(.11 
('0 



n IS 
Ifl 

1:1 

111 
8 
14 
1:! 



4(i-r.ii 

r.ii-iio 

,;)U-U)ii 

15-aii 
i.i-:jii 
nii-uu 

!II)-1»U 

li.»-i:;r, 
li.". 7.". 

uu-ir.u 

4U-60 



n Til.' .-Mtin- . ur]is nl |.i i.li-ss..i ^ nl IIm univ. r^il.\ . 1 11 Muiiic i. IS pnilessius an' inuai;.'.! in l.'.tiirinL; ..n sul.jpils wliii li ('..ni-ein I'.ir 
entry studi-nls, in Zinii I.. Jn pnilessnrs. In Miini.li all slnili.s ran li.' tulle. « iil in air\ y.ar, as tlii' sluil.nls Tiiay aili-rl. Tin. altenilaiiro 
varies, of ronrsp, wiilel.v in tlill'. rent years, lia\ in;; lii.-n .is liiuli as ■Jill in Kl.erswalile ami IJl in Miiuilin. The alii.vi- t'muns are ti.r 188.i 8C. 

h Ni.t [.Tescril.eii. 

rDurin^ tlie winter el IHIIM llieie were 1411 stiiilents .it Miiiiiili nut i.l .'iJ7 loiistr\ sinilerits at all tme.tn selii.uK. 

The Hillowiiij; lalili- will soi\ >■ to give an idea of wiiat instruction is to \w liail at tlii'.sc 
institutions; 

I'liiil 0/ sliidiis (il /'nnsl .trifilnn;/ F.hii«uiiltlr. 



Siil.j.iis 111" iii,lnietn. 



Kf.Mi.V.MIiNr.M. ,Si-IKNI-I> 
.Vil/in-.l/ffir'H.v.v. 



WIii.I.' 
iMiuiIier 
lit' hours. 



tieueial anil t lin.ret ie e!ieinistr\' 

S|ierial inori;anie anil oreaiiie 1 lieinisl r,\ a|i]ilie(i 

I'liysies ami nieteiiroli.;i,\' 

Mine rail iji,\ ami ;ieoenosy 

Delinition ol inimials ami ri.eks 

lie views tin- or.uauie nat oral seienees 

Ilotaiiy in eeneral and li.rest hotaiiy in iiartieular 

Auatii'uiy of jilaiits, \'egetal.le j.liysioloyy ami pathology ... 

Mieroscopy 

Ill itan leal reviews 

iliitaniial exeureions, eaih '2A liours 

Oelieral y.ooioiiv 

\- ertel .1 a tea . . .1 

I overt el. rates, with special relereiiee to forest in.seeta 

/ooli.;:ii al preparations 

/iiiiloeical ie\ iewa 

Zooloeieal excursioua, each 3 hours 

Total mil oral ai ienii a 

Mullti iiiiilics. 



lleoilesy 

I nteiesl and rent account 

W 1. 1 III ineaaiirintx 

Matheniat il :il review a and exercises 

SuiM-yiiii; anil lev'elinu e\ercises, each 4 lioiira 
I'lan drawing exercises. ■J.', hours 



Tot al nia theniatica 

Eronniiiii' Kcicin-t^k. 

I'll I.l ie 11 iniiuiiy and linalleea 

Total siini 111 hoina loi tiinil.iiiii ntal sciences 



Suliieclsi.f instnii til 



I'KlNril'.vi. srit':Ni Es. 



Cultivattoti of forests 

Forest iniplenielits 

:12 ; (ieographii al forest botany 

SO Protection of toreals 

61} I Forest usufruct ami tecbm.lof;y 

Go I l''oreat surveying 

-0 , Aj.praiaini; foreata 

16 I Cillculation of the value of foreata ami foreat statistics . 

1)4 Administration of forest and bunting 

00 j Keileinptiou of rielits of iisaeo 

■JO ] Forest history 

■Jo 1 1 Forest statistics 

80 Keview- of various forest niattei s 

Ui I Kxani illations - 

80 Forest excursions, each 4 hours 

80 

10 I Total 

20 

90 I sliCi.Nl.AltV srli.;Nct':s. 



840 i 



20 
20 

r.o 

102 
80 



J iiriisiiriidcncr. 

Civil law 

Criminal law 

Civil and criminal lawsuits and const it utiimal rights 
Jurisprudi'Ucu 



Total 

Construction of roads 

HuntiDK 

Sliootiuf; i.xcrciscs, 2 hours eacb. 



Total sum of hours for secondary scienccs- 
( iraml t "tal 



Fundamental sciences . 

I'l incip;il sciences 

Seeondar\ sciences . . . . 



AA-hole 
number 
of hours. 



80 
20 
48 
32 
80 
20 
80 
32 
4i< 
32 
40 
20 

r.o 

40 
352 



32 
40 
36 

180 
32 
32 
96 



340 
2,048 



I'ur cent. 

50 

37 

13 



Averaiic pel instruction w. ck (21 w ceks in winter, 17 durin^i sinnniei \ J w inter courses, 3 suinnu'r contaes) : 

— 28.5 hours, or per ila\, t.O liours. 
93 . 1 . . 



svs'i'iai ()]•' F()i;estuv knowi.edof,. 257 

If we were to codify info :i .systeiu the .science nf foiestry as (lcvelo4)e(l in (ierinany wo might 
come to the following .sclieme, which exhibits tiie various biauches in which a well-educated 
forester must be versed : 

8v.sri:M di.- I''(ii;i;stiiv Know i,|.;iMiK. 

1. l-OltKST rol.ICV — KCDNIIMIC I'.ASIS ii|' l'ul:HSIl;\ (Till': (/ONDITION). 

.I.v//tr/.v. 

1. Foimlin Htiilhlics. (Ato;i^, forest coiiilitions ; iirmluctH. liy-|>nMliicl,s : I'nido; siipiil.y ;iik1 (lriu;uid; prices; 

■substitulos.) 

2. Jutretilrif eroitfitnicn. 

(.■I. Study uf rcl.itidii (if forests on cliiiialc, soil, wator. Iicaltli, ethics, die. 

li. Study of i-oimiiercial ]M'ciili:irities and position of forosts, and forestry in political economy.) 
.'i. Ilisloyi/ t>J'forfsfri/, 

^ipplialtinll. 

4. Forcstri/ pdlilics. ( l''oruinlation .if rij;lils and dn lies of the State iinil (d' its nietUods in developing forestry; logi.s- 

latioii, .State forest adniiniNtration. education. ; 

11. roitivsi cnouccrioN — i kcii.nuai. dams m.- i-okksiuv itiik ciuir). 

.Isllivtx. 

5. Foresl. biitiiini. ( .Systciiiatie Ixitany ol' ailjorcseeut llora; forest f;«^",t!i'''i|'li.V ; plant and climate; liiolof;y ol' tree.s 

in tlicir individual and aj^^re^iito life; forest weeds. 
fi. ,S',>i/ pliiisiis ami xoil tkcmisir!/ witli special reference to fon^st n'routli. 
7. rimhcr jihiinirs. ( An.itomy of woods; clieinieal physiology and physical i>roperties of wooils. Inllncnces ileter- 

luininj; same ; diseases and I'anlls.) 
H. T(rliniil(i;iii. ( A|)pIieation of wood intlK^arts; re(|niiemeut» and Imliavior; lueehanical and working iiroperties; 

dnraliilit.N ; .special needs of consumers; uses of liy -products, waste materials, minor forest products.) 

Ajtplicatiiiii. 
!•. Silriciilliii' . (, Methods id' j;rowiii^ the crop, i 

a. Natural reforestation; i-nttiiin tor re|uoduelioii. 

h. Artiti<dal al'forestation; proinrcmenl of plant material; nnrscuy praidioe, elioiee of jilant material, methods 
of soil preparation, of forest plantiiii;. 

c. lnii)rovinf; and aeeeleratiiiK the <-idp. Cultivation, tilliiij;. Ihinniiif;, pruninj,', iinderKiowiiig. 

d. Systems of manageinent. Timber forest, standard co])]>iec, co]iplce, id.e. 

10. ForrKi prntei-tioti. (Against insects, climatic injuries, liri\ lattlo, etc.) 

11. Fuirxl impruitmeiit and mi/hud-iiKj. (Treatmcut of denuded mountain slopes, shiftiiij; sands. Iiarrons, swamp 

and moors, road building, etc.) 
1'2. i'oresi uliliutlhii. (.Methods of harvesting, transport iiig, preparation tor markid.) 

III. KOUKsr OltliAM/.ATtON — ADMlM.STKAinK AN1> I'lNANCIAl, liA.SlS (Tni! KKVENUE). 

.Ixj)c<ls. 

i:i. Foresl .luni-i/. Ascertaininj; arc'a and condition ot' the forc'^t; ascertain in:; rate of accretion, yield. 
II. Foi-tsl ralmtliDii uiiil .■iliilir.t. Ascertaining money v.aluc of forest soil ainl forest growth as cajiital of the manaf^o- 
ment and eomiiaring linaueial results of various kinds of nuiuagement. 

.tfiftUrutunl. 

15. FiircxI i-(i/ul<il(i>ii. Ivstaldishing units of manai,'eiueut and .Klmiiiistration ; ileti-rmininf,' workinj,' plans, distri- 

butinji yearly or pi'riodi<'aI cut. et<-. 
Hi. Forc.sl adiiiiiiistruliuii. Koutino methods, business practic^e, ]icrsonmd, organization of service and mechanical 

opl^ra,tion8. 

LITKUATlUi:. 

In tiddiiioti totlie live tciiciiiiii;s, wiii(;li an tiliie corps of piol'cssors iiii[iart at the.sc, institutions 
and that wliich coiiii.cteiit managers are ready to iaijiart to tiic young students in the forest itself, 
ii large number of weekly, moiithly, (|u;irterly, and tmnual Journals :iud piildicatioiis are kee|iing 
the foresters and forestry studeuts <ii( couidiit witii the progress of forestry science and forestry 
techni<itie. Adding the i)iiblications of this nature which api)e;ir in Austria and Switzerlaml in 
the (lerman language, and which h;ive their constituency in Germany as well, we can make the 
U. Doc. ISI 17 



2r)S 



FORKSTKY INAKSTIGATIONS U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 



Ibllowiii^- respectable list, not eountinji- the Journals of the lumber trade and other related 
I)ul>licati(»n.s. Those marked with an asterisk {*) are to be found in the libiary of the J>ivisi(m of 
Forestry; those niarl;ed (t) are considered the best or are most comprehensive; those marked ( ?) 

base been discontinued. 

(iermau forvsiry periodical f<. 



Xaiiie of iiubli<-;iliini. 



I'ubliahcil at^ 



Issued- 



AlI;^fiiiriiio Korst-u. Jayd/cirniif; * t ! Frankfort nn tlu^ Main Monthly 

A 118 <l«'in W'alilo ' Hanover ' Irregularly . 

Ana iliMu Walilc I Frankfort, on llie Main Wt^ekly. ..'. . 



Dfiitsrtif FoiHtu. Jagdzeituiig 

For Nt I i.-hc. nia.^Uer 

Fnrsllirli-nalurwisHi'nschaCtlicliH Zi^it-sclirift ' I . 

For.st.wiMMciisrliaftli<'lM-H < '<-Titrall)Iatt. -t 

JalircslHTiclit. i\i-A Hrlili'sisi'ln'ii Fiiistrereins . .. 
Jahrt'slnMiclit di-r preiisHischin K. u. J. ilesetzljejjunj^ 



-do . 
IJerlin . . 
Munich. 
Berlin . . 
liresLiu . 
Berlin . . 



Land- II. Forst-whtliscliaftlicho Zoitsclirift Vienna .. 

MiiendciitT forstliobf Ht'fte* Berlin . . . 

OestiTD-iihisilji.' Fcust zeitiinj; * \'ieinia . . 

U«T inaktisihi' Forstwirt fut'r din Schueiz \ Davos ... 

Schweizer /citsrlirift fuer Fors! wescn Ziirich... 

Tharaiidtrr loratliches Jalirluich ' Dresden . 

Verhandliiiiiiicn der Forst\'(Tuinn "N'arious . 

BorirJit ih-Imt die Versamuilunfi deiitscher Forstinatmner do . .. 

Zeit.sclintt iinr Forst-u. da^idweM-n f j Berlin .. . 

Zeiitralld^itt fner das {fesamiute Fnrstwesi'ii ' t Vienna . . 

Zeitschrift di-r deutscbeu Foislheamteu 



Semininntbl\' , 
M<.ntlilv-..'.. 

do .* 

do 

Aniiuallv 

...do.; 

1j)iiarterly 

IriT-fularly .. , 
"Weekly 

(?) 

Quarterly 

Amiiiallv 

do ..■ 

do 

Moiitlilv 

do ." 



Estah 
lislied. 



IKL'4 
1865 



(') 



lH6:i 

IHS'J 
1856 
1311 
1868 
1886 
18<I2 
1882 



(0 



ISt^l 
1875 



(') 



Should the reader wish to collect ;i library of the most modern thouiiht on any or aH suhjecfs 
pertaiiiiiifj' to forestry in (rermany tlie list of books contained in the library of the Deiiartinent of 
AjiTiciiltiire, acatalojjaeof which has been published, with over 1,200 iimnbers and probably li,(iOO 
volumes, would give liiiu a good selection. 

KOliESTKY ASSOCIATIDNS. 

Foi(fstry associations tlirive Ix'tter in (ierniany than in the Ifnited States and are of a different 
chaiacter; they are associations of foresters, who jiractice what they preach. There is no more 
lU'cil of a ]iroi)agaiida for forestry than there would lie here for agriculture, and the discussions, 
therefore, are moving in technical, scicnt:lic, and economic directions. Besides some thirty or 
forty larger and smaller local associations, there is held every year a forestry congress, at which 
the leading foresters discuss important (juestious of the day. 



FOUKST EXPERIMENT STATIONS. 

In addition to all these means of education and of advancement of forestry science, and in 
addition to the demonstration forests connected with the various schools of forestry, theie has 
been developed in the last twenty years a new and most important factor in the shape of forest 
experiment stations, which are also mostly connected with the Ibrestry schools. If forestry had 
a strong and well-supported constituency before, this additional force has imparted new impulses 
iu every direction. 

The first incentive tor the establishment of these stations came from the recognition lliat the 
study of forest influences upon climate could be carried on only with the aid of long continued 
observations at certain stations. At^cordingly, during the years 1802 to 18(17, forest meteorological 
stations were instituted iu Bavaria, which, uuder the efficient direction of the well known and 
eminent Dr. Ebermayer, for the lirst time attempted to solve these and other climatic ijuestions 
on a scientific basis. The results of these and other observations have been fully discussed in 
Bulletin 7 of the Forestry Division and are briefly recorded in this report. 

While these stations were continued and others added in all parts of the country, an enlarge 
ment of the programme was soon dis(uissed with great vigor, leading (between the years l.s7n-IS7<:) 
to the institution of fully organized experiment stations in Prussia, Bavaria, Saxony, Thuringia, 
Wurtcmberg, Baden, Switzerland and Austria following in the same direction; all of these finally 
combining into an "association of German forest experiment stations," similar to the association 
of agricultural ex])eriment stations in our country. Thus the science of forestry, which liithcrto 
had been dcvelojied eiii|iirically, has been jdaced upon the basis of exact scientific investigation, 
the fruit of which is just beginning to ripen in many branches. 



KOl.'KST MANA(!I;M1;NT in lilMI'ISII IN'IHA. 259 

W'c ill llic ITiiitcd states aw rortuiiatL', in that wi; can learn from the ex|iei'iencc an<l piolit 
from the assiduous work oltliosc, careful investijiators. While we may never adopt the admirable 
administrative methods that (it the economic, social, and political conditions of (Jerniany, wo shall 
ever follow them where the re.coj;nition and utilization of natural laws lead to the ])raetical 
acknowledgment of j^'eneral priiu-ijiles and to desired economic results in forest culture. 

I<Y)UKST M ANAGEMKNT UN KlMTlSlI INDIA. 

In order to show how the transfer of (iernian melliods may work advantaj^eously, even in a 
country (^ntiri^ly differently conditioned, the results obtained by the forest, niaua,t;'enient in i>ritish 
India arc here brielly stated. 

India, with a total area, of nearly l,.">(it>,(l()0 sipiare miles or !l.'ii;,(i(iO,Oli(t acres (an area about 
one-half that of the United States without Alaska), has a jioimlation of about l.'7(),(IO0,(HH), or four 
times as great as that of the United States. 

Of the entire area about !l.")(),(K)(l sipiare miles, or (>.'! per cent, are under I'.ritisli rule, the 
remaining ."iSO.ObO sipiare miles, with a ])(ii)ulation of about ."»;',.((()(), 000, being divided among a 
largo number of more or less indei)endcnt native Slates. 

Of the (uitire population about 70 jiei- cent are farmers and farm laborers, who cultivate about 
•JOO.OOO.OOO acres dl' land, •iOjOOO.OOO of which is irrigated. The greater part of the main peninsula 
is a high plateau with steep <lesc(Mits to the ocean, both on the western and eastern coast. 

T(j the north of this plateau is a broad, fertile, river j)laiu oxtendiiig from the upi)er llrainah- 
putra to the mouth of tiic Indus, a distance ol' nearly 2,000 miles, without rising more than 900 
feet above sea level. North ol' this large and densely settled Indotiangetic jilain, and forming 
the barrier between India and Thibet, is the great Himalaya ilountain system, drained by the 
tliree great river systems of nortlunn India. 

More than hall" of India lies within the Tropics and over 00 percent is fartht^r south than New 
Orleans, the latitude of which is .'>0 . I'rom this it is apparent that the climate is generally hot, 
but, owing to diversity of elevation and iieculiarities of the distribution of rainfall, it is by no 
means uniform. 

The rains of India depend on extraordinary sea winds, or •'monsoons," and their distribution 
is regulated by the, topography of land and the relative iiositioii of any districts with regard to 
the mountains and the vapor-ladon air currents. Thus excessive rainfall characterizes the coast 
line! along the Arabian Sea to about latitude I'O^ N., and still more tlie coast of liower lUirmah, and 
to a lesser e\tcnt also the delta of the Oanges and the southern slope of the Jlinialayas. A mod- 
erately humid climate, if gauged by annual rainfall, prevails over the plateau occupying the large 
lieninsula and the Lower Ganges Valley, whih^ a rainfall of less than l."i inches occurs over the 
arid regions of the Lower Indus. In keeping with this great diversity of climate, both as to 
temperature and humidity, there is great variation in tlie character and de\ cloiunent of the forest 
cov<'r. The natural dilferonces in this forest cover are emphasized by the action of nuin, who for 
many conturies has waged war against the forest, clearing it permanently or temporarily for agriiml- 
tural purposesor else merely burning it over to improve grazing fat-ilitiesor for purposes of the cluise. 
Tims only about -!."> jter wmI of the entire area of India is covered by woods, not over -O per cent 
being under cultivation, leaving about Tm ]>er cent either natural desert, waste, or grazing lands. 
The great fbi'ests of India are in lUirmah: extensive woods clothe the foothills of the Himalayas 
and are scattered in smaller bodi(?s thioughont the more humid portions of the country, while the 
dry northwestern territories are juactically treeless wastes. In this way large areas of deii.sely 
settled districts are so completely void of forest that millions of people regularly burn cow dung as 
fuel, while e(pially large districts arc still inipcmetrable. wild woods, where, for want of iruirkel, it 
hardly pays to cut even the best of timbers. 

The great mass of forests of India are stocked with hardwoods (i. e., not conifers), which in 
these Iroi)ical conntiies are largely evergreens, oi- nearly so, and onl.\- a small portion of the forest 
area is covered by conifers, both i)ine and cedar, these pine forests being generally restric^ted to 
higher altitudes. The hardwoods, most of whicdi in India truly deser\o this name, belong to a 
great variety of plant families, some of the most im|)ortant being the Leguminosa', \'erbenaeea', 
Dipterocarpea', Combretacea', Uubiaeea', Ebenaeea', Euphorbiacea', Myrtaeea', and others, aud 



260 KOliESTUY INXESTIUATIOXS r. S. DEl'AltTMENT OV AGRICULTURE. 

hut :i relatively small iiortioii of them represent the ("upulifera- and other iiiii)ortant liar(l\vo»)d 
timber families so eliaracteristie of our woods. 

In thi^ i;Teater part of India the hardwood forest consists not of ii few species, as with us, hut 
is made n\t of a great variety of trees unlike in their habit, their growth, and their pi'oduct, and 
if our hardwoods otfer on this account considerable dil'liculties to profitable exjiloitation, the ease 
is far more complicated in India. In addition to the largo variety of tind)er trees there is a 
multitude of shrubs, twining and climbing plants, and in most tbrest districts also a dense under 
growth of giant grasses (band)oos), attaining a height of 30 to 120 feet. These bamboos, valuable 
as they are in many ways, prevent often for years the growth of any seedling tree, and thus Ibrm 
a serious obstacle to the regeneration of valuable timber. The growth of timber is generally 
(juite rapid; the bamboos make large, useful stems in a single season. Teak grows into large-size 
saw tindier in fifty to sixty years. But in sjute of their rajiid growth and the large areas now in 
forest cajjable of reforestation, India is not likely to — at least within reasonable time — raise more 
timber than it needs. In most parts of India the use of ordinary soft woods, such as pine, seems 
very restricted, for only durable woods, those resisting both fungi aiul insects (of which the white 
ants are specially destructive), can be employed in the more permanent structures, and are there- 
fore acceptable in all Indian markets. 

At present teak is th(^ most important hardwood timber, while the deodar (a true cedar) is the 
most exlensi\ely used conifer. Teak occurs in all moist regions of India except the mountain 
countries, never makes forests by itself (])uro forests), grows nnxed with other kinds, single, or in 
clumps, is girdled two to three years before felling, is generally logged in a primitive way, com- 
monly hewn in the woods and shipped — usually floated — as timber, round or hewn, and rarely sawn 
to si/e. Tc'ak is as heavy and strong as good hickory, has little sa[)wood, stands well after 
seasoning, and is remarkably proof against decay and the still more dreaded white ants, ami is 
really the only important export timber of India, about $13,500,000 worth having been shipped in 
lS9I-9.">, bringing about 81 per cu})ic loot, or more than four times as much as good pine timber 
in th(^ market. 

As will be seen from tlu^ following lignres tindicr forms only about 20 |icr <'ent of the export 
of fonsst products, which consist chielly of lac, the basis of shellac (really the product of an 
mseet) and of tanning materials: 

K.flnirts o/ ff)rr.-<t in-inhiflN from litilia, ISUJ~!l'>. 

E;ic (l.asis of sh.'llac) $7.(1011,01111 

'I'cnlv 2, SOI), 000 

My 1 ciba laiis 2, WO, 000 

Ciikb and Kamliicr 1,450,000 

('aonti-Uoiic 550,000 

Fancy wooils — sandal, I'liony, rosewooil. - 2110, 000 

Cardamoms 110, (X)0 

lotal - 14,5;M,000 

The imports of timber into India have so farbeen very insignificant. Attemi)ts at introducing 
American coniferous timber (pine, spruc^e, larch, and hemlock) from the I'acific coast have not 
been successful, though it would seem that some wood goods, such as boxes, sash and door, and 
cheap furniture, should find a favorable and extensive market if once the trade is established. 
Perhaps a trciitmeut of thcst^ materials with some of the new lireproofing substances could be 
made to render them at the same time more resistant to white ants and other insect borers, 
and thus jirocure for them several imi)ortaiit advantages at once. 

In the past the people of India, as far as known, never reali/.ed the importance of their 
forests. They were cleared, destroyed, mutilated at all times and in all places, and the use of 
wood never seems to have formed an important factor in Hindoo civilization. 

With the advent of foreign conunerce the exploitation of the forests for the more valuable 
ex])ort timljcrs received a new stinuilus and the forests were culled regardless of the future, (dther 
of forest or ])eople. This matter was aggravated by the construction of railways, which, in 
themselves large consumers, also offered a jiremium on all that contributed to increased traftic. 
When, finally, it uas noticed that tlie demands of tindier for public works in some localities could 



INDIAN PoKl.sr MANAGExMKNT 261 

110 louger be sapi)li('d witlioiil (M)stly tiaiis))()rtatii)ii, tlic iiialtcr at. last ifccivcd juililic allciition. 

111 18511, \)v. I>. I'.iaiidis was a|)]«iiiit((l su))ciintcii(l('iit nf fbrcsts lnr rejj,ii; in l^i;:,' li(> was cliarjiCMl 
with the duty of or.uaniziiif'' a forest d(^|)a^tlllOIlt for all India, and in 18(11 lus was apiiointcd the 
first iiis[)ec.torgcm'ral for the forests of India. Dniinn' the thirty-four years of its existence this 
(h'jtartuient has steadily and lapidly j;rown in tln^ area niana.u'ecl, fll(^ nnnilier of tnen employed, 
and the revenue derived for the State. In 18'.tt-!)."> this forestry deiiartinent had control of about 
I IL',0()(l s(piar(> miles of forest, nearly half of all the forests, and aliout lli iier cent of tlie entire 
area of India. Of thes(^ State forests, 7 I, OlH I square miles are " reserve" or peruiauent State forests, 
while the rest are held as " i)rot(K!ted" and "unelass(Hl,"a lar.ue jtortion of which will beeoinc 
reserve or ])ermaiient forests as fast as the necessary surveys and settlement can be niaih'. 

With t lie irrej;u la !■ distribution of forests, the peculiarities of Indian affairs, and the iin surveyed 
wild, and dillieultconditioiis of tlu^ forests tlieiiiselves, it is but natural that the work thus far 
has been chiefly one of (U',i;aiiizatioii, survey, and iirotection, and to a far less decree an attempt 
at improvement both by judicious cutting and reforestation. 

Over 3.'^i,(l()() s(piare miles have be(>n surveycil for forest [iiirposes siiicc^ 1S7I. and over 1,000 
sipiare miles were added duriiiL;' the year 18'.)l-!l.">. at a. cost of o\cr si.>(l(),0()((. 

Work of eslalilisliinj;' and maintaining boundary lines, which is often a \eiv dilliciilt and 
costly matter in tlii^ dense trojiical Jungles, involved during the saini^ year an expense of oyer 
•* 10,000, and tlu're are at jireseiit about (id, 000 miles of such boundary lines maintained. ]>e.sides 
this .survey work projier, there is a large force constantly at work to ascertain the anioniit and 
condition of timber sniiiilies and to pieiiaro suitable plans for tlieir e\|)loitation and improvement, 
so that about 12 ])er cent of the entire forest area, or over riT(l,000 acres, is by this time managed 
with defiiiite working plans as to amount of tinilx'r to be cut, what areas to be thinned, retbrested, 
etc. The work of |nolci'tion is I'hii^lly <ui(^ of preventing and fighting tires. This ]irotection with 
present means <'aii not be (iairied on o\er the elltir(^ tbrest areas, of w hic^h large tracts are not even 
crossed by a foot|)ath, and in a land where the regular tiling of the woods has become the custom 
of centuries, and where, in addition, intensely hot and dr.\- weather, together with a most luxuriant 
growth of giant grasse-;, render these Jungle tires practically iiiimanageable. In all forests near 
S(ittlements the forest iiinst be i.solated by liroad '-tire traces" or otherwise. In the jungle forests 
these traces must lie broad; the grass, often taller than an elephant, must lie cut and burned 
before the grass on either side is dry enough to burn. Similarly, the traces in the long-leaf pine 
fbrc'sts must be very wide and first converted into grass strips, cut or kept clean by burning. In 
spile of the nnnsnal dillieiilties there were in 18il4-0."j over .'t-'l, 000 S(|uare miles ])rotected against 
lire, and ou only 8 jjer cent of this area did the element succeed in doing any damage. In this 
work, too, great progress has been made during the last twenty years; the elliciency has steadily 
increased, and the expense, about 810 ])er square mile in 188."), has been n'lluced to less than half. 

lu the protection against unlawful felling or timber stealing and grazing, the ( iovernmeiit 
of India has shown itself fully eipial to the occasion by a liberal ])olicy of siqiplyiug villagers 
in |)idximlty to the forests with fuel, etc., at reduced ]irices or gratis. Over •*L'.(MIO,000 worth wa.s 
thus disposed of in 1801-',)."), tlii^ incentive to timber stealing being thereliy materially reduced. 
A reasonable and Just permit system of grazing, where again the ni'cds of the neighboring 
villagers ar(wuost carefully considered, not only brings the (Iovernmeiit a yearly n^venueof nearly 
.'4800,000, but enables the people to graze about ;>,OO0,OO0 head of animals in the State forests 
without doing any material damage to tree growth. 

Though the fbrcsts of India ar(^ now, and will continue tor some time to lie. little more than 
wild woods, with .some jiroteetioii and a reasonable system of ex]>loitation, in place of a mere 
roiibing or <uilliiig system, yet tlus work of actually impro\ iiig the Ibrests steadily iiiin-eases in 
amount and perfection. 

In the large teak forests of Ibirnia, as well as other iirosinees, care is had in helping this 
valuable timber to iirojiagate itself; the useless kinds of trees are girdled, huge ciiiidxns are (uit 
olf, and a steady war is waged against all siiecies detrimental to teak regi'iieration. Where the 
teak has entirely disappeared, (n'e.n [ilautiiig is resorted to. 'I'liiis in Ibirma over o.j, 000 acres 
have been restocked with teak liy means of taungyas. or plantations, wh<M-e tlie native is allowed 
to burn down a piece of woods, use it lor a few years as field (though it is never really cleared) on 
(touditioii of iilauting it with teak, being jiaid a certain sum tor e\crv linndred trees in a thiil'iy 



2r.2 



l-'ORESTRY INVESTIGATIONS U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 



condition at the time of giving up his land. Similarly, tlio dopartnicnt has expended large sums 
in estal)lishing forests in ])arts of the iirid regions of ISelnehistan, and on the whole has expended 
about $1.')(»,0()() during 1804-05 on cultural operations, which uj) to that time involved about 
7(>,0(H) lu-.res of regular plantations and .''>(i,0()(> acres tauiigyas (mostly teak), making a total of 
112,000 acres, besides utimerous hii-ge areas where the Avork consisted merely in aiding natural 
rei)roduction. 

In disposing of its timber the Government of India employs various methods. In some of 
the forest districts the people merely i)!iy a small tax ami get out of the woods what and as much 
as they Tieed. In other cases the logger merely pays for what he removes, the amount be fells 
being ueither limited in quantity nor (piality. The prevalent systems, however, are the permit 
system, where a permit is issued indicating the amount to be cut and the price to be paid for the 
same, and the contract system, where the work is more or less under control of government officers 
and the material remains government jiroperty until ])aid foi'. To a limited extent the vState carries 
on its own timber exploitation, as appears from the following tigures, where the cut for lSOi-05 for 
the entire country is given : 



Kinil :uh1 quantity "1' protliict. 



KLflrioved by — 
Stiili'. I Vnrnh.i.ser. 



Tinilier (1,0i)n ciilup fwtl I S, 7(i(i r!9, 900 

Filial (1,000 ciihi.- ti'et) I 'Jg, ooo 09,000 

l!iiiiiliii(>s (1,000 pieces) I l.WIO ITJ.'JOO 

Minor jirodiicl.s ($1,000) 90 l,.'.0l) 



In spite of the many difficulties, a poor market (no market at all for a large number of woods), 
wild, unsurveyed, and ]ira(;tically unknown woodlands, requiring unusual and costly methods of 
organization and protection, the forestry department has succeeded, without ciu'tailing thi^ timber 
output of India, in so regulating forest exi)loita(ioii as to insure not only a permanence in the output, 
but also to improve the woodhmds by favoring the valuable species, and thus prejjare for an 
increase of output for the future, ami at the same time has yielded the (ioveriiment a steaddy 
growing revenue, which bids fair to rank beloie long among the important sources of income. 

The growth of both gross and net revtiiuie is illustrated by the following figures: 



iliiriiiU tlin |ii-ri"il- 



Oross in- 
cimir. 



1870-1874 $:;.8UI,000 

1 87."i-i 879 :i, :i:io. Olio 

1880-1884 ' 4, 408, 00(1 

1885-1889 .5, 834, 000 

1890-1 894 7, 974, (100 





l'ni|iurtiim 


Kxi)eilSrS. 


ot ex]teiiae 




lo inroine. 




Pt'y cfiit. 


$1,900,000 


70 


2, i;88, 000 


09 


2, Hdii, 000 


04 


:i, 7i;i, 000 


04 


4, 200, 000 


54 



From this it is clear that in India as in Europe not only the gross but also the net income has 
become greater in juoportion as a better organization is permitted lo expend more money on the 
cai'e of the forests. 

During the year lS0i-0r» the income from State Ibrests was distributed as follows: 

Wood ^\\ 170, 000 

Minor ])roiluct.s 670,000 

G razi n s 7S1), 000 

Other i)icomes 750, 000 

Total income 8,370,000 

The exp(Mulitures for the same .year were: 

For adiiiiiiistratioii (pay of oflioi-rs, foresters, ctr.) $2, 200, 000 

l''or rutting tinilicr and reinovinf;- it 1,350,000 

( )ther worli 7G0, 000 

Forest silnxd 4(), 000 

Total recurring expenses 4, 356, 000 

For survey and other extraordinary work 300, 000 

Total rxpenditiirc 4,656,000 

leaving a net revenue of $3,714,000, or 41 per cent of the gross income. 



w_ 



INDIAN FORKST MANAGEMENT. 2G3 

It is of special inteii'st to note tliat the expense of fire i)i()leetioii aiiioiinted, iiiidei- tliese most 
extraonliiiary cin iinistanees, only to $ !.'!(). (M)(i, or l.(i per eent of tlie gross income, and that for 
cultural work, tire horror of the American anti-forest pioclaimer, only $150, OOO, or l.S per (-ent of 
the gross income, was paid. 

The forest laws of India were hke those of most countries, a matter of growth and adaptation, 
with the iinpoitant difference, however, that the well detined object of preserving to this great 
and ]ici-iiliar peoi)lc a continuous sup])ly of the :ill essential timber was steadily kept in mind. 
The principal acts ;ire those of ISli."), lS(i'.l, and especially thc^ "Indian forest act " of 1S78, with 
secondary legislation ajiplying to particular localities, such as the act of ISSl for LJurma, and IS.SU 
for Madras and others. 

in general these forest laws jirovide for the establishment of iiernianent or •'reserved" State 
foi ests, to ])e managed according to modern forestry i)rineiples. They jirovide for a suitable force of 
nun; give the foiest ollicers certain |>olice jiowers; prohibit unwarranted removal of forest 
])r()ducts, the setting of lires, or otherwise injuring the for(\st pioixaty. The, laws also regulate 
grazing and the chase by permit systems, anil i)rescribe rules iiy which the work of the depart- 
ment is carried on, as well as the manner in which ollicers are engaged, promoted, etc. Since the 
jieculiar circumstances required men specially lifted and trained, schools were established to 
furnish the recruits for this steadily growing service. The one at Coopers Hill, I'^ngland, where a 
thorough course is intended to piepare men for ihi^ su[)erior stall' iiositioiis, and the Imperial 
school at Dehra Dun, which is to su|)ply the great number of the executive staff, the young men 
starting in usually as guards or rangers at a pay of about ■*-.") per month, working their way up 
to jilaces worth *7() per month, aTid if well suited, eligible for fuither i)iomotion. In the Dehra 
l>nn school ami the executive staff the native element is fast making itsell' felt, and there is little 
doubt that the men of India will soon be able to manage the forests of their own native land. 



r> 



■09 



